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3Je'476 

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6M— D-45— Form  3 


Earl  B.  Hawks. 


Science 

and  Art  of  Poultry 

Culture 


By 

Earl  B.  Hawks,  LL.  B. 


ve\ 


A  Practical  Textbook  of 
Poultry  Husbandry  in 
Its  Various   Branches 

Illustrated 

Price,  $2.75 


Published  by  the  Author 

1909 


/ 


COPYRIGHT,    J  009 

BY      . 
EARL    B.    HAWKS. 


PREFACE. 

In  placing  this  volume  before  the  public,  the  author  fully 
realizes  the  responsibility  that  rests  upon  one  who  assumes 
so  grave  an  undertaking.  The  poultry  industry  has  reached 
such  proportions,  the  amount  of  capital  invested  is  grow- 
ing so  rapidly  and  the  ultimate  success  of  the  individual 
is  so  necessary,  that  a  treatise  on  the  poultry  industry  should 
be  compiled  in  the  most  careful  and  painstaking  manner. 

Since  childhood,  poultry  has  had  its  allurements  for  the 
author,  who  spent  his  early  years  upon  a  farm.  The  train- 
ing given  by  the  high  school,  the  college,  the  university, 
and  the  subsequent  practice  of  the  law,  has  enabled  the 
author  to  enjoy  keenly  the  fancier's  labors  and  assisted 
him  to  fully  realize  that  in  the  field  of  poultry  culture  it 
is  brains,  not  brawn,  that  win  success. 

Whatever  of  merit  is  to  be  found  in  this  treatise  is  largely 
due  to  the  years  of  assistance  given  by  various  Govern- 
ment experiment  stations  throughout  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  to  the  efficiency  of  the  poultry  journals,  to  the 
special  treatises  of  value,  to  the  splendid  exhibitions,  and 
to  the  practical  experience  of  the  author  as  a  fancier,  each 
of  which  has  had  a  share  in  the  general  education  leading 
to  this  volume.  This  education  is  opening  to  the  author 
the  possibilities  that  lie  ahead  for  the  student  in  poultrydom, 
and  the  vast  extent  and  importance  of  this  field  in  the  com- 
mercial world. 

To  Wm.  E.  Becker,  is  due  the  credit  for  valuable  aid  and 
the  excellent  chapter  upon  the  "  Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites 
and  Diseases  of  Poultry  and  their  Proper  Treatment,"  and 
who  in  turn  wishes  to  acknowledge  the  assistance  of  Sal- 
mon and  other  prominent  authorities. 

The  author  will  feel  that  this  volume  will  not  have  been  in 
vain  if  it  shall  prove  helpful  and  instructive  to  poultry  lov- 
ers, whether  they  are  beginners  or  veterans  in  the  business 
or  whether  they  are  in  college,  on  a  city  lot,  or  on  the  farm. 

Clinton,  Wisconsin.  Earl  B.  Hawks. 

"  87295 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Chapter.  Page. 

I.      Introductory,     1 

11.     Poultry  Anatomy,    10 

III.     Classes,   Breeds  and   Varieties  of   Fowls,   12 

IV.  Practical  Principles  of  Breeding  and  the  Man- 
agement  of   Breeding   Stock,    16 

V.  Egg  Structure,  Formation  and  Germ  Develop- 

I  ment,    38 

^^VI.     IncuI)ation,     46 

VII.     Brooding 74 

VI TI.     Foods  and  Feeding 119 

TX.     Conducting  an   Egg  Farm 120 

X.  Five  Methods  of  Selecting  the  Laying  Hen,  ..129 

i^XJ.     Malting,    135 

XII.  Poultry  Houses,  Fixtures,  Fences  and  Yards,  .137 

''  XIII.     Conditioning  and  E.xhibiting  Poultry,   195 

iXIV.     Poultry   Judging,    218 

pXV.     Methods    of   Preserving    Eggs,      223 

JlXVI.     Food  Value  of  Poultry  Products,    231 

XVII.     Capons  and   Caponizing,    265 

U-XVIII.     The  Crate  and  Milk  Feeding  Industries,  272 

v-XIX.     Marketing  the  Commercial  Egg 279 

XX.  Disposing    of    Stock    and    Eggs    for    Breeding 

Purposes 291 

L-XICI.     The    Day-old    Chick    Industry,    296 

^XXII.  Prel5aring    and  iMarketing  Poultry  and  Its  By- 
products  300 

QCXTII.     Carving   a    Fowl 318 

-XXIV.  A     Few    Table     Delicacies    P'rom    Eggs    and 

Poultry 321 

,  OCXV.     Ducks    and    Geese 334 

XXVI.     Turkey  Culture,    355 

XXVII.     Guinea    Fowls, .  .  .371 

X5^VIII.     Raising  Pigeons  and  Squabs 375 

i/XXIX.     Pheasant   Culture,    389 

L  XXX.     Accounts    and    Records 398 

XXXI.     Principles  of  Advertising,  411 

XXXII.     Organizing   Associations 428 

XXXIII.  Vices     Enemies,    Parasites    and    Diseases    of 

Poultry  and  Their  Proper  Treatment, 438 


TABLE  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Area    Studies,     144-145-147-148 

Barred    Plymouth    Rocks,    80-98-135-425 

Bird's  Eye  View  of  Poultry  Plant,    75 

Black   Minorcas,     399-454 

Black  Orpington,     79-456 

Black   Langshans,    273-316 

Breeding  Chart,   23 

Brood  of  Chinese  Pheasants,  395 

Brooder   House,     165 

Brown   Leghorn 285 

Buckeyes,    412-429 

Bufif    Cochins,    36-49 

Buff  Leghorn,     18 

Buff  Plymouth  Rocks,   8-34 

Caponizing  Instruments 269 

Catching  Hoek,    184 

Celeny  Reuses  and  Coops,    160-161-162-163-164-166 

Cornish    Indians,    415-432 

Egg  Production   Chart,    288 

Helmet    Pigeons 376-385 

Light    Brahmas,    310-319 

Mottled  Ancenas,    418 

Poultryman's  Chart,   ■ 5 

Rhode  Island  Reds 12-66-81-441 

Score    Card,    220 

Silver  Laced  Wyandottes 232 

Skeleton    of    Fowl 11 

White    Cochins,     3 

White  Plymouth  Rocks,    ■  • 202-207 

White  Wyandottes 27-31 

Yard  Studies,    187-188 


INDEX. 


Accounts    and    Records    and 

Forms    398,    426 

Advertising: 

Ascertaining   Value   of    ..424 
Caring    for    Inquiries    ...424 

Copy     422 

Eggs       and       Stock       for 

Breeding     291 

General     Suggestions     ...411 

Mediums     414 

Records    of    426 

Sliow    Room    216 

A<?e    of    Fowls: 

As    Egg    Producers     123 

Determining     221 

Anatomy   of   a    Fowl    10 

Anemia     456 

Apoplexy     457 

Areas,    Relative   Studies    ...143 
Arrangement    of   Plant    ....142 

Ash     95 

Associations.    Organizing: 

General     Suggestions     ...428 
Constitution       and       By- 
Laws      434 

Atavism     19 

Banding    212 

Barb     6 

Barring     6 

Bean    6 

Beard     6 

Black    Head     457 

Black    Rot     458 

Blade     6 

Blood     303 

Brain,   Congestion   of    459 

Brassiness     6 

Break-down     ...  459 

Breed     ...  6,    17 

Bre- '  ..g: 

onart     23 

Cross-breeding     21 

Disposing   of   Stock    291 

•     Ducks   and   Geese    341 

In-breeding     21 

Line-breeding    21,    123 

Management  of  Stock   .16,  32 

Objects    of    17,    122 

Pigeons     377 

Principles    of    16 

Turkeys      357 

Breeds    of   Fowls: 

Admitted    to    Standard     .  . 

13.    14,    15 

Capons     267 

Productiveness     122 

Broilers     275,    301 

Broken    Bones    459 

Bronchitis     460 


Brood: 

Feeding     89 

Separation  of  Sexes 92 

Teaching    and    Care    86 

Weaning     91 

Brooder: 

Capacity     83 

Essentials  of  Cold  Brooder  80 
Essentials       of      Warm 

Brooder     80 

Kinds     82 

Location     84 

Operating     84 

Setting   Up    83 

Temperature     85 

Brooding: 

Artificial    74,    79 

Buildings     159 

Ducklings   and  Goslings    .345 

Guinea    Fowls    373 

Mortality      During      and 

Causes     76 

Natural     74,     77 

Pheasants     393 

Pigeons     381 

Turkeys    363 

Buildings: 

Area.    Studies    in     143 

Brooder     159 

Colony     127 

Continuous     127 

Ducks   and    Geese    336 

General   Purpose    168 

Incubator     156 

Laying    Stock     126 

Location    of    137 

Miscellaneous     184 

Pheasants    389 

Pigeons  and  Squabs  ....384 
Turkeys     360 

Bumble    Foot    461 

Candling — See  Testing. 

Canker    464 

Cannibalism     453 

Cape     6 

Capon: 

Age,   Breeds   and   Time    ..267 

Care    and    Feeding     270 

General    265,    302 

Caponizing     265 

Tools    and    Directions    for 
265,    266,    267,   269 

r'arbohydrates     94 

Care: 

Breeders     33 

Capons     270 

Ducks  and  Geese  ...345,  351 
Exhibition  Fowls  ...214,  217 
Layers     127 


Index 


Pheasants    396 

Pigeons   and    Squabs    ....386 

Sexes     35 

Yards     190 

Carriage     6 

Caruncles     6 

Carving  a  Fowl    318 

Catarrh     461 

Catching    Hook    184 

Chart,     Poultryman's     5 

Chicken    Pox    462 

Choking    462 

Cholera     463 

Classes   Admitted    to   Stand- 
ard         13 

Climate     34,    141 

Cock     6 

Cock  Cage    ISl 

Cockerel     6 

Colds     464 

Cold    Storage    225 

Comb     6 

Kinds    of    7 

Colony    Houses — See    Build- 
ings. 
Composition  of  Foods   .102,  103 

Conditioning    Fowls     

32,    33.    124,    195,    199 

Congestion    of   Brain    459 

Congestion     of    Lung     464 

Constipation     465 

Consumption      466 

Cooking    Poultry    Products: 

Eggs     233 

Flesh      239 

Cooling: 

Eggs    67 

Poultry     311 

Coops     159,    212 

Corns     466 

Correlation     20 

Cramming — See  Crate  Feed- 
ing. 

Crate    Feeding    2  72 

Advantages      272 

Costs   and   Profits    274 

Crating      276 

Foods    and    Feeding    276 

Fowls    Used    275 

Labor    Requirements    ....273 
Location   and   Equipment   274 

Marketing     278 

Crest     7 

Crop     7 

Cropbound      466 

Cross-breeding     21 

Crows    455 

Cushion     7 


Dav-old    Chick   Industry: 

Oeneral .296 

Package^;    29S 

Shipments     297 

Defects,    Correction    of    ....20.^ 

Dewlap      7 

Diarrhea.     White     467 

Diphtheria     470 

Diseases    of    Poultry     456 


Disinfectants      and      Their 

Uses     442 

Drainage: 

Air    140,    189 

Soil    139.    189,    340 

Dressing,  Methods  of    .308,   387 
Droppings: 

Indicator    of    Health    107 

Value    of    303 

Dropsy     470 

Dropsy  of  Feet    471 

Dropsy    of    Heart    471 

Dubbing      7 

Duck-footed     7 

Ducks  and  Geese 302,   334 

Breeding     341 

Brooding    and    Growing    .345 

Eggs      343 

Foods  and  Feeding 348 

General     Care     351 

Housing,     Equipment    and 

Yarding    336 

Incubation     334 

Marketing     354 

Preparing  for  Market    ...353 

Varieties     335 

Dusting — See    Fixtures. 

Dying  in  Shell   73 

Dysentery    471 

Eczema     472 

Egg: 

Commercial     Grades     and 

Grading     282 

Commercial    Packing    and 

Shipping     284 

Composition     242,    244 

Cooking     233 

Determining  Sex  and  Fer- 
tility         50 

Diet.    Place    in    and    Costs 

262,    263 

Delicacies    from     321 

Digestibility    247 

Disposing    of    for    Hatch- 
ing      291 

Ducks   and   Geese    243 

Farm     120 

Formation     40 

Germ    39.    42,    43 

Guinea    Fowl    372 

Incubation : 

Cooling    67 

Moisture 70 

Table  of  Time    52 

Temperature     64 

Testing    50,    68 

Turning    65 

Phea<=ants     392,    397 

Location    of   Farm    121 

Packages    226,    282.    293 

Pheasants     392-397 

Pigeons     381 

Structure    38 

Turkeys     361 

"^"aterfowl      344 

Egg-bound     472 

Egg-eating     453 


Vlll 


Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


Enemies    455 

Environment     20 

Enteritis     473 

Epilepsy     473 

Exhibiting  and  Exhibitions: 
Advertising  in  Showroom  216 
Attitude   in    Showroom    ..215 

Banding    212 

Care,     During    and     After 

214,     217 

Correcting  Defects   203 

Ducks   and    Geese    341 

Feeding     200,    214 

Number    of    Entries    197 

Producing   Stoclc    196 

Selection    of    Entries    197 

Shipping     Entries      212 

Training    Stock    211 

Turkeys    369 

Value    of    196 

Washing  and   Cleaning    ..208 
When  to  Exhibit 197 

Feathers   303 

Feather-eating     452 

Feeding     93 

Adult   Stock    110,   117 

Breeders     33,     117 

Capons     270 

Chicks    78.    89,    109,    113 

Dry   Mash    107 

Ducks    and   Geese    348 

Exhibition    Stock     200 

Fattening  Stock    110,    117 

Growing  Stock    109,    113 

Hopper     108 

Laying  Stock    115,    125 

Moulting   Stock    118 

Pheasants     394 

Pigeons    and    Squabs    ....383 

Time   for    107 

Turkeys    365 

Wet  Mash    108 

Felch    Breeding    Chart     23 

Fences     190 

Construction     192 

Cost     191 

Gates     194 

Height     191 

Materials     191 

Fertility     50 

Fish-skin  Disease    474 

Fixtures: 

Brooding  168 

Ducks  and  Geese  338 

General  Purpose  ...173,  181 

Incubation  159 

Miscellaneous  184 

Turkeys  361 

Flesh  of  Fowls: 

Analysis     254 

Comparative     Nutritive 

Values    258 

Composition     254,    256 

Cooking     239 

Diet,    Place    in    and    Cost 

252,    263 

Digestibility    260 


Table   Delicacies    327 

Foods: 

Analysis    102 

Breeding   Rations    117 

Composition     102 

Cooking,    Effect   of    106 

Digestibility    96 

Duck  and   Gcesc   Rations  348 

Essentials    of     94 

Fattening    Rations    118 

Growing    Rations    113 

Laying    Rations    ....115,    125 
Maintenance    Rations     ...117 

Molting   Rations    118 

Pheasants'    Rations    394 

Pigeon     and    Squabs'    Ra- 
tions      383 

Preference    for   Foods    ...    96 
Values — Relation  to  Feed- 
ing        95 

Frost    Bite     474 

Frosting    7 

Foundation    Studies    151 

Fumigation — See     Disinfect- 
ants. 

Gapes    474 

Gastritis     476 

Gates     194 

Geese — See   Ducks. 

Gloss.irv    6 

Going  Light    477 

Gravel,  Green  and  Grit — See 
Feeding. 

Guinea  Fowl    302,   371 

Brooding    373 

Eggs    372 

Incubation      373 

Mating     272 

Marketing    373 

Habits,    Objectionable    452 

Hawks     455 

Hatch.   Taking  off    55,    72 

Hen,    Setting    53 

Heredity     17,     19 

Houses — See   Buildings. 

Inbreeding      21 

Incubation     46 

Artificial    52,    53,    55 

Building     156 

Cooling   Eggs    During    ...    67 

Ducks   and    Geese    344 

Eggs   and    Tlieir   Care    ...    48 

Guinea    Fowls    373 

Moisture   During    70 

N'atural     52 

Objects  to  be  Attained    .  .    56 

Pheasants     392 

Pigeons     381 

Sex  and  Fertility  During     50 
Temperature    Required    .  .    64 

Testing    During     68 

Time    Required     52 

Turning    During    68 

Turkeys    361 

Ventilation    During    70 


Index 


Incubators: 

Essential  Parts    56 

Location     62 

Operation     62 

Temperature    of   Room    .  .    64 

Indigestion     477 

Inflammation   of  Oviduct    ..478 

Inflammation    of    Vent    478 

Insulation    Studies    154 

Introductory    1 

Investment    126,    142 

Jaundice    479 

Judges    and    Judging    218 

Preparation    for     219 

Qualifications   of    218 

Scoring  and   Score  Cards   220 

Keying — See     Advertising. 
Killing     304,    387 


Lacing     

Laying  Hen,  Selection  of 


7 
,129 

Leg  Weakness    479 

Lice    447 

Limber-neck    480 

Lime  Solution  Preservative  227 
Line  Breeding  and  Chart    .  .    21 

Marking     212 

Marketing    Poultry    Produce 

138.    280,     300 

Broilers     301 

Blood     303 

Capons    271,    302 

Commercial   Egg^    

128.    279.    286 

Crate       and       Milk       Fed 

Chickens     278 

Droppings     303 

Bucks    302,    353 

Feather.s     * 303 

Fries    301 

Game    Birds    302 

Guineas     302,    373 

Methods    of    Selling    313 

Offal     303 

Packing  and    Packages    ..311 

Pigeons    and    S<|uabs    387 

Preparation    311 

Cooling    311 

Dressing 308 

Grading    311 

Inspecting    311 

Killing     304 

Plucking     305 

Shaping     310 

Roasters     302 

Shipping     312 

Squabs     302.    387 

Time   to    Market    316 

Turkeys     302,    369 

Mating: 

Chickens     25.     28 

Ducks  and    Geese    341 

Guineas     372 

Pheasants    391 


Pigeons     379 

Turkeys    357 

Mealy    8 

Milk      Feeding — See      Crate 
Feeding. 

Mites    448,    450 

Moisture  During  Incubation  70 

Mossy    8 

Mottled   8 

Molting    134 

Indications     134 

Care  During    134 

Rations    118,    135 

Forcing     136 

Nests   and  Nesting   53 

Oats    Sprouted    112 

Offal     303 

Organs    of    Fowl    and    Their 

Functions     444 

Paralysis     480 

Parasites    446 

External      447 

Internal     450 

Parti-colored     8 

Pedigree      37 

Pen     8 

Penciling     8 

Peronitis     481 

Pheasants     389 

Brooding    393 

Care     396 

Eggs    392 

Foods   and   Feeding    394 

Incubation     392 

Mating    391 

Shipping  Stock  and  Eggs  397 

Varieties     389 

Pigeons    and    Squab?    375 

Breeding    Stock    377 

Care     386 

Eggs,       Incubation       and 

Brooding     381 

Poods  and  Feeding 383 

Killing   and    Dressing    ...387 

Loft  and  Fly    384 

Mating    379 

Markets  and  Prices    387 

Pip      481 

Plucking.   Methods  of   .305,   342 

Pneumonia     482 

Poultry  Houses — See   Build- 
ings. 

Poultryman's   Chart    5 

Poultryman's  Medical  Outfit  445 
Poultrv       Produce,       Food 

Values     231 

Cooked    Eggs     233 

Cooked   Flesh    239 

Prepotency     20 

Preservation  of  Eggs.  Meth- 
ods  of    223,    225 

Prevention  of  Disease    439 

Protein     94 

Pullet 9 


Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


Rations     94 

Balanced    94 

Balancing   of    103 

Narrow     94 

Wide    94 

Rats     455 

Records — See    Accounts    and 
Records. 

Rheumatism     483 

Roasters    276,   302 

Roup    483 

Scabies    4SC 

Scaly   Leg    486 

Scoring  and   Score  Cards    ..220 
Sectional  Parts  of  a  Fowl   .      5 

Serrated     9 

Serving  Capacity  of  a  Male  30 

Sewerage    141 

Sexes: 

Care    of    35 

Determined    in    Eggs     ...    50 
Determining      in      Water- 
fowl      342 

Separation   of    92 

Shade    189,    340 

Shaft    9 

Shaping     310 

Shipping: 

Commercial     Eggs.     Poul- 
try and  By  Products    .  . 

284,    317 

Day-old   Chicks    297 

Eggs       and       Stock      for 

Breeding     293,    297 

Exhibition    Fowls    212 

Side  Sprigs    9 

Setters     54 

Skeleton   of  Fowl    11 

Slip     265 

Soil     139,    189 

Spraying    265 

Sprouted   Oats    112 

Squabs — See    Pigeons. 

Squirrel-tail     9 

Standard  of  Perfection    ....    12 

Sterility    30 

Strains    9,  17,  29,   122 

Surface    Color    9 

Symmetry    9 

Table  Delicacies   from  Eggs 

and   Poultry    321 

Temperature: 

Brooder    Building    167 


Brooding    85 

Incubation     64 

Incubator    Building    158 

Tester     42 

Testing    42,    68,    222.   280 

Thumbmark     9 

Training  Fowls    211 

Transportation      137 

Trap-nest    ...130.    175,    177,   179 

Trio     9 

Tuberculosis    487 

Turkeys    302,    355 

Breeding  Stock    356,   357 

Brooding     363 

Care    367 

Eggs    361 

Exhiljiting      369 

Feeding     365 

Housing    360 

Incubation     361 

Marketing    369 

Turning    Eggs    65 

Undercolor     9 


Varieties      of      Fowls      Ad- 
mitted  to    Standard    ...    13 

Variation     20 

Variety     9 

Ventilation: 

During    Incubation     ..70,    159 

Studies    in    149 

Vertigo     489 

Vulture^Hock     9 

Washing   and    Cleaning    Ex- 
hibition   Fowls     208 

AVastiiig  of  Liver    489 

Water    141 

Water  Glass    227 

Weaning  Brood    91 

Webb     9 

Windpuff     490 

Worms    450 

Yarding    185 

Care     190 

Drainage     189 

For  Ducks  and  Geese    ...339 

Fences     190 

Location     186 

Shade    189 

Shape     186 

Size    ISfi 

Soil     189 


To  the  Public: 

Any  requests  for  the  services  of  the  author  as  a  lecturer 
upon  poultry  subjects  at  Institutes,  Exliibitions,  or  upon 
other  occasions  should  be  made  as  early  in  the  season  as 
is  convenient.  Being  Manager  of  the  Peerless  Poultry 
Plant  (inc.)  and  having  other  business  interests,  timely 
correspondence  would  be  mutually  satisfactory. 

The  Author, 

Clinton,  Wisconsin. 


Chapter  I. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

In  every  branch  of  industry,  one  finds  himself  sur- 
rounded by  certain  unchangeable  factors  which,  when 
intelligently  considered,  insure  success.  Those  underly- 
ing principles  of  success  are  present  in  the  same  de- 
gree in  poultry  raising  as  in  manufacturing,  with  this 
difference :  In  the  former,  one  is  dealing  with  life ;  in 
the  latter  with  inanimate  things.  Which  industry  re- 
quires the  greater  ability,  we  leave  for  the  reader  to 
decide.  Many  advance  the  thought  that  only  one  who 
loves  poultry  should  enter  it  as  a  business.  Others  be- 
lieve that  one  should  approach  poultry  raising  as  they 
would  any  other  business  undertaking.  We  believe 
that  it  takes  a  better  ability  to  successfully  raise  poul- 
try than  to  conduct  an  ordinary  mercantile  business. 
There  is- no  characteristic  of  the  successful  business  man 
that  is  not  required  in  this  industry,  while  there  is  need 
for  the  additional  qualifications  of  patience,  gentleness 
and  constant  watchfulness. 

The  person  who  looks  to  poultry  keeping  as  an  easy 
life  should  inform  himself  fully  before  reaching  such 
a  conclusion.  The  person  who  is  lazy,  unkind,  careless, 
forgetful  and  unsystematic  would  fail  as  certainly  as 
he  undertakes  poultry  keeping.  When  he  reaches  the 
point  where  he  knows  all  about  poultry,  he  again  is 
on  his  way  to  disaster.  The  better  his  early  training, 
the  more  complete  his  education,  and  the  more  he  re- 
alizes the  importance  of  the  poultry  industry,  the  great- 
1 

D.  H.  HILL  LIBRARY 

North  Carolina  State  Coileg* 


2  Science  axd  Akt  of  Poultry  Culture 

er  are  his  chances  of  success.  Constant  study  and  con- 
sistent experimenting  will  tend  to  perfect  both  the 
science  and  the  art  of  poultry  raising.  The  beginner 
or  the  experienced  can  find  much  of  profit  in  our  poul- 
try journals,  our  textbooks,  our  experimental  station 
bulletins,  our  poultry  associations  and  our  poultry  ex- 
hibitions. 

iieginning  with  the  germ  life  in  the  parent  stock,  he 
can  apply  his  knowledge  of  biology,  chemistry  and 
physics.  He  can  use  his  mathematics  about  his  plant 
and  in  his  accounting.  He  can  develop  himself  in  the 
methods  of  reaching  the  consumer  and  thereby  increase 
his  profits.  In  short,  there  is  room  for  the  exercise 
of  small  or  large  ability.  Let  not  the  most  ignorant 
or  the  best  educated,  the  extremely  poor  or  the  man 
of  wealth,  hesitate  to  enter  poultry  keeping  if  he  will 
do  so  with  a  mind  open  to  the  reception  of  certain  main 
basic  principles  and  let  good  common  sense  be  guided 
by  study  and  observation.  Build  a  success  upon  every 
failure,  and  in  time  health  and  happiness  will  be  yours 
as  well  as  a  just  recompense  for  your  labor. 

No  one  need  feel  that  the  time  will  ever  come  when 
the  market  for  any  poultry  product  will  be  supplied. 
The  total  value  of  the  poultry  products  and  the  allied 
industries  is  taking  rank  as  no  one  dreamed  it  could. 
No  one  branch  of  live  stock  can  approach  it  in  value. 
It  gives  employment  to  an  immense  army  of  people 
of  both  sexes.  Experts  along  its  many  lines  command 
high  salaries. 

The  reason  that  so  many  have  failed  in  this  industry 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  importance  and  extent  of  the 
business  were  unknown  to  them  and  blindly  they  rushed 
into  a  calling  for  which  they  were  ill-prepared.  We  do 
not  doubt  that  eighty  per  cent  of  those  who  have  failed 


Introductory 


4  SciENci:  AND  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

had  the  making  of  good  poultrymen  if  they  were  to  ap- 
proach the  business  in  the  right  way.  Instead  of  fail- 
ure, there  should  be  every  reason  to  expect  success, 
as  well  as  pleasure  in  handling  one  of  the  most  useful 
and  beautiful  of  God's  creatures. 

After  deciding  to  build  up  in  this  field,  one  must 
then  determine  upon  the  breed,  the  location,  the  amount 
of  investment,  the  methods  of  breeding,  incubation, 
brooding,  feeding,  management,  marketing  and  many 
kiftidred  subjects.  It  is  one  of  the  objects  of  this  vol- 
ume to  assist  in  these  determinations  and  the  succeed- 
ing chapters  wall  need  to  be  read  and  reread  many  times. 
Avoid  the  mistake  of  attempting  too  many  lines  at  once, 
as  it  is  better  to  perfect  one  line  of  the  industry  at  a  time. 
What  line  to  begin  with  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  indi- 
vidual taste,  capital  and  location.  One  may  have  but  a  cit*y 
lot,  another  a  farm,  and  another  a  small  acreage.  One 
may  wish  to  raise  poultry  for  eggs  and  meat  only,  while 
another  may  be  raising  exhibition  birds  for  pleasure  or 
profit,  and  so  on  through  the  many  branches  of  the 
business.  Whatever  the  line,  keep  nothing  but  the  best 
and  make  every  energy  expended  bring  back  the  best 
possil)le  results. 

Select  the  breed  or  variety  which  appeals  to  one 
but  obtain  only  the  best.  Study  the  Standard  of  Per- 
fection and  the  local  climatic  conditions.  If  eggs  only 
are  desired,  the  Mediterranean  classes  seem  to  be  the 
best  suited;  if  meat,  the  Asiatic  classes  and  waterfowl 
predominate.  If  both  eggs  and  meat  are  desired,  the 
American  classes  are  better.  If  pleasure  also  is  the 
object,  then  one  may  take  other  fowls  of  the  various 
classes.  Let  no  one  believe  all  the  good  qualities  are 
in  one  breed  or  variety,  as  each  has  strains  excelling  in 
some  respect. 

One   may    becrin    at    anv    season   of  the   vear.     The 


Introductory 


Courtesy  of  Reliable  Incubator  and  Brooder  Co. 

The  above  Chart  shows  the  sectional  parts  of  a  fowl:  1, 
Comb;  2,  Face;  3,  Wattles:  4,  Earlobes;  5,  Hackle;  6,  Breast;  7, 
Back:  8,  Saddle,  9.  Saddle  Feathers;  10,  Sickles;  11,  Tail  Coverts; 
12,  Main  Tail  Feathers;  13.  Wingbow;  14.  Wing  Coverts,  forming 
Wing  Bar;  15,  Secondaries,  Wing  Bay;  16,  Primaries  or  Flight 
Feathers,  Wing  Butts:  17,  Point  of  Breast  Bone;  18,  Thighs; 
19;   Hocks;   20,   Shanks  or  Legs;   21,    Spurs;   22,   Toes   or  Claws. 


6  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

season  and  capital  will  determine  the  method  of  be- 
ginning, but  be  certain  that  all  necessary  equipment  is 
at  hand.  Look  ahead  and  be  ever  watchful  for  chang- 
ing w^eather  and  poultry  enemies.  Master  the  little  de- 
tails, and  the  profits  will  double. 

Technical   Terms. 

To  assist  the  reader  in  the  better  understanding  of 
the  succeeding  chapters  and  the  poultry  publications, 
we  follow  with  a  few  technical  terms  which  are  not 
shown  in  the  preceding  illustration: 

Barb. — The  plumed  portion  of  the  feather  on  either 
side  of  the  shaft. 

Barring. — Bars  or  stripes  across  a  feather  at  right 
angles  to  its  length. 

Beard. — Feathers  or  hairs  pendant  from  the  throat 
or  breast. 

Bean. — A  bean-shaped  growth  at  the  tip  of  the  upper 
mandible  of  a  waterfowl. 

Blade. — The  rear  part  of  a  single  comb  back  of  the 
last  point. 

Brassiness. — Being  of  a  yellowish  or  brassy  color. 

Breed. — A  race  of  fowls  having  common  character- 
istics.    Varieties  are  sub-divisions  of  breeds. 

Cape. — Short  capelike  feathers  on  the  back  covered 
by  the  hackle. 

Carriage. — The  manner  or  style  in  which  a  fowl  car- 
ries itself. 

Caruncles. — Small,  llcshy  protul)erances  on  the  head, 
as  in  the  turkey. 

Cock. — Male  fowl  one  year  old  or  over. 

Cockerel. — ]\Iale  fowl  less  than  one  year  of  age. 

Comb. — Flesh  growth  on  the  top  of  a  fowl's  head. 


Introductory  7 

Leaf    Comb. — Two    small,    single,    serrated    combs 

joined  to  form  one  comb. 
Lopped  Comb. — Falling  to  one  side. 
Pea  Comb.— Three  low,  straight,  single  combs  com- 
bined in  a  parallel  manner  to  form  one  comb,  each 
division  being  serrated  and  uniting  at  base  and 
rear. 
Rose  Comb. — Low,  wide  and  solid,  with  surface  cov- 
ered with  small,  round  points  and  terminating  in 
a  spike. 
Single    Comb.— Single,    thin    and    serrated,    rising 
from   the  beak  and  extending  back  to  and  over 
crown  of  the  head  and  sometimes  beyond. 
Strawberry    Comb.— Resembling    a    strawberry    in 

surface  and  outline. 
Twisted  Comb.— Distorted  from  a  perpendicular  po- 
sition and  irregular. 
V-Shaped    Comb.— Two    hornlike    sections    joined 
at  the  base  into  one  comb. 
Crest.— A  tuft  of  feathers  on  the  head  of  a  fowl. 
Crop.— A    fleshy    receptacle    containing   the    food    ac- 
cumulated by  a  fowl  before  it  passes  into  the  gizzard. 

Cushion.— The  feathers  at  the  rear  of  the  "back  of  a 
fowl  partly  covering  the  tail. 

Dewlap.— A  pendant  development  of  skin  under  the 
throat. 

Dubbing.— Removing  the  comb,  wattles  and  earlobes, 
so  as  to  leave  the  head  smooth. 

Duck-footed.— The  carrying  forward  of  the  hind  toe. 

Frosting.— The  marginal  edging  of  color  on  feathers 
of  the  laced,  spangled  and  penciled  varieties. 

Lacing.— A  feather  bordered  with  a  band  of  color 
different  from  its  bodv  color. 


8 


Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


Mealy. — Appearing-  to  have  been  sprinkled  with  meal. 

Mossy. — Appearance  of  irregular  penciling  in  the  cen- 
ters of  laced  feathers,  lessening  the  contrasts  of  color. 

^Mottled. — Appearance  of  spots  of  variant  colors  on  the 
surface  of  plumage. 


BUFF  PLYMOUTH   ROCK. 
Courtes5'  of  N.   M.   McCullough. 


Parti-colored. — Two  or  more  colors  on  one   fowl   or 
feather. 

Pen. — A  male  and  four  females. 

Penciling. — Delicate  markings  or  stripes  on  a  feather. 


Introductory  9 

Pullet. — A  female  fowl  less  than  one  year  of  age. 

Serrated. — A  notched  edge  resembling  a  saw. 

Shaft. — The  stem  of  a  feather. 

Side  Sprigs. — Growth  on  the  side  of  a  comb. 

Squirrel-Tail. — A  tail  any  portion  of  which  lies  for- 
ward of  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  juncture  of  the  tail 
and  back. 

Strain. — A  family  of  any  variety  of  fowls  line  bred 
to  a  point  of  development  which  differentiates  it  in 
some  characteristic  from  some  other  family  of  the  same 
variety. 

Surface  Color. — The  color  of  the  plumage  as  seen 
when  the  fowl  is  at  rest. 

Symmetry. — The  harmony  of  the  various  sections  of 
a  fowl,  when  viewed  as  a  whole,  as  compared  to  the 
standard  type  of  the  breed  to  which  it  belongs. 

Thumb  Mark. — A  depression  which  sometimes  ap- 
pears in  the  side  of  a  single  comb. 

Trio. — One  male  and  two  females. 

Under  Color. — The  color  of  the  plumage  which  is  in- 
visible while  the  fowl  is  at  rest. 

Variety. — A  sub-division  of  a  breed. 

Vulture-Hock. — Stifif  quill  feathers  extending  back- 
ward on  the  thigh. 

Web. — The  flat  portion  of  the  feather  extending  on 
either  side  of  the  shaft  and  made  up  of  a  series  of  barbs. 
Also  applied  to  the  flat  skin  between  the  toes  and  at- 
tached to  the  wing. 

Wry-Tail. — A  tail  which  is  out  of  alignment  with  the 
body  of  the  fowl. 


Chapter    II. 

POULTRY   ANATOMY. 

It  is  essential  to  the  thorough  understanding  of  poultry 
that  the  framework  or  anatomy  of  the  fowl  be  under- 
stood. The  host  whose  guests  are  watching  with  inter- 
est his  skill  at  carving,  the  many  employed  at  commer- 
cial poultry  dressing  for  the  market,  the  housewife  pre- 
paring the  Sunday  meal,  the  fancier  who  is  selecting 
his  exhibition  entries,  the  breeder  to  improve  his  flock, 
the  poultry  keeper  who  is  called  upon  to  administer 
to  the  needs  of  accidental  injury,  these  and  many  others 
are  in  real  need  of  intelligence  regarding  the  structure 
of  a  fowl  which  to  the  majority  is  a  hidden  secret.  Who 
does  not  admire  the  finished  product  of  the  show  room 
where  grace  marks  every  line  of  plumage  and  where  the 
style  and  proud  carriage  of  the  fowl  seems  to  be  a 
conscious  possession.  Without  a  perfect  anatomy  this 
beauty  cannot  exist.  With  but  scant  variation  in  t3^pe 
the  same  structure  serves  alike  to  maintain  the  speed  of 
the  migrating  swallow,  the  endurance  of  the  desert 
ostrich  and  the  prowess  of  the  eagle.  It  is  a  structure 
of  remarkable  grace  and  strength  and  one  well  worth 
more  than  a  passing  thought. 


10 


Poultry  Anatomy 


11 


Skeleton  of  fowl.  A,  B,  head;  C,  D,  vertebrse  of  the  neck 
(cervical  vertebrse);  D,  E,  dorsal  vertebrse;  F,  G,  coccygeal  ver- 
tebrse; H,  humerus;  I,  ulna;  J,  radius;  K,  carpus;  L,  metacarpus; 
M,  digits;  N,  coracoid  bone;  O,  forculum;  P,  sternum;  Q,  keel; 
R,  ribs;  S,  ilium;  T,  ischium;  U,  pubis;  V,  femur;  W,  patella; 
K,  tibia;  Y,  flbula;  Z,  metatarsus;  a,  digits. — From  Chauveau. 


Chapter  III. 

CLASSES,   BREEDS  AND  VARIETIES  OF 
FOWLS. 

It  should  be  clearly  borne  in  mind  that  there  is  no 
way  to  become  proficient  in  the  science  and  art  of  poul- 
try keeping  without  the  use  of  the  "  Standard  of  Per- 
fection." This  book  is  published  by  the  American 
Poultry  Association  at  stated  intervals,  and  is  a  com- 


ROSE   COMB    RHODE   ISLAND   RED. 
Courtesy    of   Lester   Tompkins. 


plete    description    of    all    recognized    varieties    of    fowls 

with  necessary  illustrations.     In  it  one  will  also  find  a 

complete  glossary   of  technical  terms  and  the   instruc- 

12 


Classes,  Breeds  and  Varieties 


13 


•  tions  governing  the  judging  of  fowls.  It  will  be  but 
a  short  period  until  each  breed  and  variety  will  have 
its  own  individual  Standard  of  Perfection.  This  chap- 
ter is  intended  to  give  the  student  or  reader  simply  a 
bird's-eye  view  of  the  subject  of  which  it  treats.  The 
Standard  also  gives  a  scale  of  points  for  each  class,  as 
well  as  an  accurate  detailed  description  of  each  breed 
and  variety,  both  of  which  are  essential  to  the  educa- 
tion of  poultry  lovers. 


Table  of  Fowls  Admitted  to  the  Standard. 


Breeds. 


Varieties. 


'Buckeyes  . 
Dominiques 
Javas     .... 


I.  AMERICAN. 


IL  ASIATIC. 


iiL  mediterra- 
nean. 


—  Pea   Comb. 

—  Rose    Comb. 
S  Black. 
}  Mottled, 
f  Barred. 
1  Buff. 
1  Penciled. 

L  White. 
Rhode  island  Reds]  Se^°-mb. 


Plymouth   Rocks 


Wyandottes 


Black. 

Buff. 

Columbian. 

Golden. 

Partridge. 

Silver. 

Silver  Penciled. 

White. 

Dark. 
.Light. 


r  Black. 
J  Buff. 


Partridge. 
I  White. 

r  m  Crohn  nc  -*  Black. 

l.an^shans    (White. 

'Anconas     —Mottled. 

Andalusians     —Blue. 

Single   Comb   Black. 
Rose  Comb  Brown. 
Single    Comb    Brown. 
Rose    Comb    Buff. 
Single   Comb   Buff. 
Silver    Duckwing. 
Rose    Comb    White. 
.Single  Comb  White. 
(  Rose   Comb   Black. 

Minorcas     -^Single   Comb    Black. 

(  Single    Comb    White. 
\Spanish     —White-faced    Black. 


' Leghorns 


14 


Science  and  Ant  of  Poultry  Culture 


IV.   ENOLISTl. 


V.   POLISH-Polish 


VI.   DUTCH  -Hamburgs 


VIL   FRENCH. 


GAMES  AKD 
GAME  BAN- 
TAMS 


IX.    ORIENTAL 

GAMES     AND 
BANTAMS 


X.   ORNAMENTAL 
BANTAMS 


XI.   MISCELLA- 
NEOUS 


(  Colored. 

Dorkings     ■.  Silver  Gray. 

(  White. 

(  Single  Comb  Black. 

Orpingtons     -^Single    Comb    Buff. 

/Single  Comb  Wliite. 
.Redcaps    —Rose   Comb. 

White   Cre.sted    Black. 

Bearded    Golden. 

Non-bearded     Golden. 

Buff    Laced. 

Bearded     Silver. 

Non-bearded    Silver. 

Bearded    White. 
.Non-boarded    Wliite. 
r  Black. 

Golden   Penciled. 

Golden    Spangled. 

Silver    Penciled. 

Silver  Spangled. 
L  White. 

(  Creveooeiir.s    —  Black. 

.  ■   Hondans     —  Mottled. 

(  La   Fleche    —Black. 

Black-breasted    Red. 

Black. 

Brown    Red. 

Birchen. 

Golden     Duckwing. 

Silv(>r    Duckwing. 

Red    Pyle. 

White. 

Black. 

Black-breasted    Red. 

Brown    Red. 

Birchen. 

Duckwing    Golden. 

Duckwing    Silver. 

Red    Pyle. 
L  White. 

(  Cornish. 
>  White. 
-Black-breasted    Red. 

—  Black-breasted    Red. 

—  Black. 


Game    Bantams 


4   iSIalays     

I  Malay    Bantams 
L  Sumatras     


''Booted     -White. 

B'-ahma     )  ^^^ 

r  Black. 

;  Buff. 

;  Partridge. 

I  White. 

{    Black-tailed. 
Japanese     <  Black. 

'  White. 

(  Bearded     White. 
Polish      -  Buff    Laced. 

'  Non-bearded. 

<,  Black. 

■  Wliit( 


Cochin 


Rose   Comb 


I  Seabrights     j  g^^l^J^P- 

Silkies     —  White. 

Sultans     —  WHiite. 

Frizzles     —  Any    color. 


Classes,  Breeds  and  Varieties 


15 


XII.   TURKEYS 


XIII.   DUCKS 


XIV.  GEESE 


Aylesbury 
Cayuga  . 
Call    


Crested     

East    India     

Indian    Runner    .  . 

Muscovy     

Pekln     

Rouen     

Swedish    

African     

Chinese     

Embden     

Egyptian     

Toulouse     

.Wild    or    Canadian 


Bronze. 

Black. 

Buff. 

N'arragansett. 

Slate. 

White. 
-White. 
—Black. 
(  Gray. 
"/  White. 
—White. 
—Black. 

—  Colored. 

\  White. 

>  White. 
—Colored. 
—Blue. 
—Gray. 

(  Brown. 

I  White. 
—White. 
—Colored. 
—Gray. 
—Gray. 


Chapter  IV. 

PRACTICAL  PRINCIPLES   OF   BREEDING  AND 
THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  BREEDING  STOCK. 

GENERAL. 

In  presenting  this  chapter  the  aim  will  be  to  keep 
away  from  the  too  technical  and  the  too  scientific  as 
largely  as  is  consistent  with  a  clear  and  lucid  presentation 
of  the  subject.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  laws 
governing  the  reproduction  of  any  living  ^^rganism 
are  very  complex  and  as  yet  their  depths  have  scarcely 
been  fathomed.  In  the  light  of  this,  there  is  untold  hon- 
or for  the  students  who  shall  continue  to  unfold  to  the 
breeders  of  any  living  creatures  such  general  or  specific 
laws  as  will  enable  them  to  more  surely  attain  to  the 
object  sought.  A''ery  earnestly  do  poultry  lovers  seek 
light  in  respect  to  improving  their  strains  and  this  in- 
telligent study  combined  with  careful  selection  seems 
to  be  accomplishing  splendid  results. 

In  successful  breeding  there  are  so  many  specific. cau- 
tions, so  much  of  applied  knowledge,  such  simple  yet 
intensive  application  to  details  that  one  is  prone  to  sum 
the  whole  subject  up  and  conclude  by  saying  that  the 
secret  of  success  is  brains,  good  foundation  stock, 
proper  mating  and  care.  These  elements  well  blended 
spell  advance  for  poultry  breeders.  To  ignore  them 
means  one  more  added  to  the  list  of  failures.  Again, 
a  splendid  sign  of  success  is  the  fancier  who  is  still 
pressing  after  further  knowledge,  whose  flock  show 
careful  breeding  and  whose  voice  is  never  raised  against 
16 


Practical  Principles  of  Breeding  17 

a  brother   fancier's  birds.      Start   right  and   keep   right 
is  to  end  right. 

Objects  of  Breeding. 

In  applying  scientific  principles  to  poultry  raising, 
the  central  aim  or  the  object  in  view  will  govern  what 
course  to  follow.  If  the  sole  aim  is  egg  production, 
or  meat  production,  or  the  producing  of  a  bird  to  con- 
form to  Standard  requirements,  or  the  creation  of  a  new 
variety,  or  whatever  the  object,  it  is  clear  that  entirely 
different  procedure  will  be  required.  Therefore,  de- 
cide upon  the  object  to  be  attained  and  let  every  energy 
spent  be  along  scientific  lines  which  will  further  the  de- 
sired end. 

Technical  Terms  Explained. 

Breed. — A  breed  is  a  race  ©f  fewls  having  common 
characteristics.     \'arieties  are  sub-divisi©ns  ©f  breeds. 

Strain. — A  strain  is  a  family  of  any  variety  ©f  fowls 
line  bred  to  a  peint  of  development  which  differentiates 
it  in  some  characteristic  fr®m  seme  other  family  of 
the  same  variety.  In  those  varieties  where  double  mating 
is  practiced  each  pen  is  really  a  sex  strain.  When  new 
blood  is  introduced,  the  strain  is  temperarily  br©ken. 
The  mixing  ©r  amalgamati®n  ®f  strains  is  a  ver)-  dan- 
gerous procedure,  especially  in  parti-C9l»red  birds. 
]\Iuch  dishonest  practice  is  prevalent  in  advertising 
strains.  Alany  so-called  strains  are  in  fact  only  trad';- 
marks. 

Heredity. — This  term  is  capable  of  many  defini- 
tions and  its  secrets  are  in  part  unknewn.  For  our  pur- 
pose, it  is  that  power  in  f©wls.  when  properly  mated,  to 
transmit  to  the  egg-germ  certain  individual  qualities 
or  characteristics  possessed  by  the  parent  stock.  The 
poor  qualities  seem  to  be  as  easily  transmitted  as  the 
good.     Heredity    is    the    powerful    c©rnerstone   of  ad- 


18  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


SIxVGLE  COMB   BUFF  LEGHORN. 
Courtesy   of   F.    A.    Tecktonius. 


Practical  Principles  of  Breeding  19 

vancement  toward  higher  ideals.  Some  of  the  prin- 
ciples granted  are  as  follows:  Heredity  is  sometimes 
dominant  or  apparent.  Again  it  is  latent  or  obscure. 
These  sometimes  take  a  reversal  in  different  genera- 
tions, the  dominant  becoming  latent  and  the  latent  be- 
coming dominant.  When  this  occurs,  it  is  called  atavism, 
reversion  or  tlirozving  back.  It  is  claimed  that  certain 
dominant  characteristics  of  the  sire  usually  appear  in 
the  female  oft'spring,  while  those  of  the  dam  appear  in 
the  male  progeny.  Upon  the  heels  of  this  comes  a 
claimed  principle  that  in  each  generation  after  the  first 
a  tendency  is  present  for  the  females  to  revert  to  the 
type  or  characteristics  of  the  original  dam  and  the  males 
to  the  original  sire.  In  conjunction  with  both  these  prin- 
ciples, direct  heredity  tends  to  transmit  the  characteris- 
tics of  both  sire  and  dam  to  the  offspring.  The  im- 
portance of  known  ancestry  and  line  breeding  now  be- 
gins to  appear.  Mendel's  Law  of  Heredity  or  Segre- 
gation is  a  new  discovery  of  much  value  to  science,  al- 
though its  application  has  but  just  begun.  It  is  one  more 
step  in  known  principles  of  heredity  and  when  the 
Alendelian  characters  are  worked  out  in  reference 
to  poultry  breeding  it  may  prove  of  great  interest  to 
breeders.  It  should  not  be  confused  with  dominance, 
as  the  latter  is  revertible  while  Mendel's  law  is  uni- 
form and  regular  when  the  Mendelian  characters  are 
known. 

It  is  also  claimed  by  men  of  character  that  they  have 
succeeded  in  bringing  about  an  organic  modification  of 
certain  parts  of  a  bird  by  the  use  of  instruments,  such 
as  trimming  an  e.xtra  point  off  a  comb  during  several 
successive  generations,  thus  inducing  nature  to  transmit 
the  constant  correction  of  man.     Hereditv  is  evervthing 


20  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

to  poultry  breeding  and  a  study  of  this  subject  beyond 
what  can  be  given  in  an  article  of  this  nature  should 
be  pursued.  Intelligent  stutly  and  application  of  the 
laws  of  breeding  will  govern  heredity.  The  laws  of 
heredity  are  also  often  affected  by  prepotency  in  either 
sex,  by  environment  and  other  laws. 

Prepotency. — The  tendency  or  ability  of  a  parer^ 
to  transmit  to  an  offspring  a  certain  characteristic  m 
a  more  than  ordinary  degree  is  called  prepotencv.  Upon 
this  depends  the  building  up  of  a  strain.  Also  the  usual 
laws  of  inheritance  may  be  overruled  by  prepotency. 
This  is  valuable  in  a  bird  of  high  qualities  and  is  also 
ground  for  discarding  a  poor  bird.  Only  by  actual  test 
can  a  bird's  prepotency  be  determined.  No  breeder  ever 
pens  a  male  bird  with  his  flock  until  he  has  determined 
what  he  will  beget. 

Correlation  and  J'ariation. — Each  bird  has  its  own  in- 
dividuality arising  from  inheritance  as  expressed  by  domi- 
nant and  latent  characteristics  as  changed  by  environment. 
This  is  variation.  Correlation  is  the  harmonious  working 
together  of  all  parts  and  functions  of  the  body.  When  we 
force  egg  production,  we  weaken  germ  fertility.  When  we 
force  early  growth  for  market  purposes,  we  also  les- 
sen vitality  along  other  lines.  Aim  to  keep  all  parts  in 
healthy  condition  and  only  by  the  slow,  methodical 
process  of  selection  can  we  correctly  increase  a  special 
characteristic  in  a  strain. 

Environment. — Environment  may  be  defined  as  the 
sum  total  of  every  external  influence  surrounding  the 
fowl  from  the  passage  of  the  germ  life  in  the  egg  to 
the  death  of  the  matured  bird.  When  one  talks  of  incu- 
bation, of  brooding,  of  feeding,  of  care,  of  climate,  of 
temperature,  or  of  any  other  phase  of  poultry  culture, 
dealing  with  the  germ  life  in  the  egg  form  or  the  later 


Practical  Principles  of  Breeding  21 

development  of  that  life,  he  is  talking  directly  of  en- 
vironment. Therefore,  in  reality,  we  might  justly  say 
that  right  inheritance  combined  with  correct  environ- 
ment makes  for  perfection  in  poultry  culture. 

Cross  Breeding. — Cross  breeding  is  the  mating  of 
fowls  of  different  breeds,  varieties  or  families.  This  is 
often  used  to  accomplish  some  definite  end,  such  as  im- 
p.oving  a  low  grade  flock  by  the  introduction  of  a  pure- 
blood  male,  to  improve  a  strain  by  new  blood  and,  by 
some,  to  combine  heavy  breeds  with  the  lighter  egg- 
producing  strains  to  obtain  a  better  utility  fowl.  This 
latter  is  not  considered  the  success  that  formerly  was 
attributed  to  it  and  is  falling  into  disuse.  A  pure-bred 
egg  strain  of  any  variety  has  proven  the  more  satisfac- 
tory. 

Inbreeding. — Breeding  very  closely  within  the  mem- 
bers of  one  family  is  called  inbreeding.  Some  confuse  line 
breeding  with  inbreeding  and,  in  their  lack  of  correct 
knowledge,  decry  line  breeding.  Line  breeding  and  inbreed- 
ing may,  in  certain  cases,  be  one  and  the  same  ;  but  no  line 
breeder  of  judgment  will  allow  inbreeding  to  be  car- 
ried to  a  harmful  point  because  he  knows  that  inbreed- 
ing will  transmit  defects  in  double  degree  as  quickly 
and  often  more  quickly  than  strong  points  if  certain 
conditions  of  vigor  and  prepotency  are  not  considered. 
The  novice  need  have  no  fear  of  correct  line  breeding 
because  in  any  other  way  he  must  fail  beyond  a  certain 
point.  Line  breeding  may,  in  certain  cases,  be  the  ex- 
treme of  inbreeding  where  justifiable. 

Line  Breeding. — Line  breeding  is  continuously  mating 
in  one  line  of  descent.  Inheritance  is  the  natural  law 
and  intelligent  selection  of  matings  the  human  factor 
in  successful  line  breeding.  There  must  be  a  close 
study  not  to  go  beyond   a   certain   limit   in    relationship 


22  Science  and  Art  ok  Poultry  Culture 

unless  the  characteristics  and  tendencies  are  harmon- 
ious. Upon  the  other  hand,  too  close  a  limit  may  breed 
defects  where  vigor  and  prepotency  are  lacking.  No 
intelligent  line  breeding  can  take  place  without  the  use 
of  trap-nests  or  some  method  equally  as  certain  in  des- 
ignating the  dam.  Pedigree  records  are  therefore  es- 
sential, as  will  be  clearly  seen  in  the  breeding  chart 
shown.  The  pedigree  may  be  made  a  valuable  aid  if 
it  is  used  in  conjunction  with  careful  judgment  in  the 
selection  of  the  individuals  to  keep  up  the  line  of  de- 
scent. Close  observation  in  mating  is  in  fact  placed  by 
many  as  the  most  powerful  factor  in  line  breeding.  On 
the  other  hand,  breeding  by  pedigree  without  the  proper 
mating  selections  has  been  the  ruin  of  many  a  splen- 
did prospect.  Let  the  pedigree  record  and  the  yard  study 
go  hand  in  hand.  Proper  mating  requires  a  knowledge 
of  many  of  these  forces  of  heredity,  breeding  and  care 
and  a  study  of  one  involves  a  study  of  all. 

The  breeding  chart  of  that  veteran  poultry  iancier, 
Mr.  I_  K.  Felch,  is  given  with  an  explanation  by  ]\Ir. 
Felch  which  clearly  shows  the  method  of  line  breeding 
from  an  original  pair  of  fowls  and  points  out  the  truth 
of  the  statement  that  the  original  sire  or  dam  may  be 
the  all-important  factor  in  a  strain.  Many  combinations 
may  be  made  by  a  careful  study  of  the  chart,  any  of 
which  are  within  the  proper  limits  of  line  breeding. 

"  Each  dotted  line  represents  the  female  as  having 
been  selected  from  the  connected  upper  group,  while 
the  solid  line  shows  the  male  as  having  been  taken  from 
the  indicated  upper,  group.  Each  circle  represents  the 
progeny,  to  wit:  female  No.  1  mated  with  male  No.  2 
produces  group  No.  3,  which  is  ^  the  blood  of  the  sire 
and  dam. 

"  Females  from  group  No.  3.  mated  back  to  their  own 


Practical  Principles  of  Breeding  23 


&k       @;i 


© 


24  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

sire  No.  2,  produce  group  Xo.  5,  which  is  ^  of  the  blood 
of  the  sire,  No.  2,  and  ^  the  blood  of  the  dam,  No.  1. 

"  A  male  from  group  No.  3,  mated  back  to  his  own 
dam,  No.  1,  produces  group  No.  4,  which  is  ^4  of  the 
blood  of  the  dam.  No.  1,  and  >4  the  blood  of  the  sire, 
No.  2. 

"  We  select  a  cockerel  from  group  No.  5  and  a  pul- 
let from  group  No.  4,  or  zicc  versa,  wdiich  will  produce 
group  No.  7.  This  is  mathematically  half  the  blood 
of  each  of  the  original  pair.  No.  1  and  No.  2.  This  is  a 
second  step  toward  producing  a  new  strain. 

"  Females  from  No.  5  mated  back  to  the  original 
male,  No.  2,  produce  group  No.  8,  that  are  J^s  the  blood 
of  No.  2.  And  a  cockerel  from  No.  4,  mated  back  to  the 
original  dam,  No.  1,  produces  group  No.  6  that  is  Ys 
the  blood  of  the  original  dam  and  only  ^  of  the  blood 
of  the  original  sire. 

"  Again  we  select  a  male  from  No.  8  and  females 
from  No.  6  and  for  a  third  time  produce  chicks  (in 
group  No.  11)  that  are  half  the  blood  of  each  of  the 
original  pair.  This  is  the  third  step  in  securing  complete 
breeding  of  our  new  strain.  In  all  this  we  have  not 
broken  the  line  of  sires,  for  every  one  has  come  from 
a  group  in  which  the  preponderance  of  blood  was  that 
of  the  original  sire.  Nos.  2,  8,  13  and  18  are  virtually 
the  blood  of  No.  2. 

"  We  have  reached  a  point  where  we  may  wish  to 
establish  a  male  line  whose  blood  is  virtually  that  of 
our  original  dam,  and  we  now  select  from  No.  6  a  male 
which  we  mate  wnth  a  female  from  No.  4.  and  produce 
group  No.  9,  which  is  13-16  the  blood  of  the  original 
dam,  No.l,  and  3-16  the  blood  of  the  sire. 

"  Again  we  select  a  male  from  No.  9  and  a  female 
of  the  new  strain  No.   11.  and  produce  group  No.    14 


Practical  Principles  of  Breeding  25 

which  becomes  21-32  of  the  blood  of  the  original  dam, 
thus  preserving  her  strain  of  the  blood. 

"A  male  from  No.  13,  which  is  13-16  the  blood  of  the 
original  sire.  No.  2,  mated  to  females  from  No.  10,  which 
are  5-16  the  blood  of  the  original  sire,  No.  2,  gives  us 
a  group  No.  17,  which  is  9-16  the  blood  of  said  sire,  while 
in  No.  16  we  have  the  new  strain  and  in  No.  18  the 
stram  of  our  original  sire  No.  2.  Thus  we  have  three 
distinct  strains,  and  by  and  with  this  systematic  use  we 
can  go  on  breeding  for  all  time  to  come." 

Helps  in  Mating. 

Equipment — \'ery  little  need  be  said  at  this  place  re- 
garding specific  equipment,  such  as  houses,  lands  and  fix- 
tures, since  any  such  will  do  so  long  as  the  elementary  fac- 
tors of  health  and  vigor  in  the  stock  may  be  maintained. 
Good  and  handy  equipment  saves  time  and  possible 
danger  from  undue  exposure  and  also  assists  in  proper 
care.  In  short,  make  the  surroundings  as  nearly  ideal 
as  the  means  at  hand  will  justify.  One  indispensable 
fixture  is  the  trap-nest  or  a  substitute  which  is  of  equal 
value. 

Mating — ]\Iating  is  the  key  to  the  satisfactory  advance 
in  poultry  breeding.  It  is  the  zenith  of  the  applied  knowl- 
edge of  every  known  principle  of  breeding.  All  that 
is  achieved  by  mating  is  the  result  of  that  application. 
Therefore,  assuming  that  the  fa.-.cier  has  studied  well 
and  understands  the  various  laws  of  inheritance  and 
environment,  what  follows  will  be  more  in  the  nature 
of  aids  to  the  memory. 

The  first  consideration  will  be  to  determine  just  what 
object  we  have  in  view  in  our  matings.  If  it  is  for 
market  poultry  we  must  choose  a  breed  or  variety  which 
matures  quickly   into   the   size  and  shape  called   for  by 

t>.  W,  HULL  UB^AKY 
North  Carolina  State  College 


26  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

the  consumer.  If  it  be  for  eggs  mainly,  then  the  fowl 
which  places  the  kind  of  egg  demanded,  the  largest 
number  of  them  in  a  }ear,  and  gets  down  to  that  busi- 
ness the  earliest,  is  the  bird  wanted.  If  a  perfect  bird 
in  type  and  color  is  desired,  then  choose  as  nearly  a 
perfect  parentage  as  is  obtainable.  No  matter  what 
the  object,  the  future  depends  upon  bu}ing  the  founda- 
tion stock  of  a  reputable  breeder  who  has  line-bred  it 
to  a  successful  point,  and  at  the  same  time  maintained 
a  vigorous  constitution  and  strong  reproductive  power 
in  each  fowl.  If  the  mating  is  to  come  from  the  breed- 
er's own  flocks  then  this  knowledge  of  the  fowl's  an- 
cestry is  assured. 

The  beginner  should  not  fail  to  take  cognizance  of 
the  fact  that  in  mating  the  majority  of  varieties  of  chick- 
ens, two  separate  matings  are  required,  one  for  males, 
called  cockerel  mating,  and  one  for  females,  called  pul- 
let mating.  The  pullets  from  the  cockerel  mating  are 
not  standard  and  are  only  valuable  for  future  cockerel 
matings  while  the  cockerels  from  the  pullet  mating  are 
not  standard  and  are  valuable  only  for  future  pullet 
matings.  This  system  of  mating  is  termed  double  mat- 
ing. Single  mating  is  where  standard  males  and  fe- 
males are  both  obtainable  from  the  same  mating. 

Double  mating  has  grown  to  a  point  where  single 
mating  for  exhibition  birds  is  almost  unknown  in  parti- 
colored fowls  and  is  used  extensively  in  solid  colored 
fowls  to  produce  sex,  shape  of  body  and  other  parts. 
Because  of  this,  we  really  have  two  distinct  sex  sub- 
varieties  in  each  variety.  The  breeder  desires  the  stand- 
ard plumage  of  the  barred  rock  cock  bird.  He  choos- 
es dark  females  to  mate  to  a  standard  male,  thus  ob- 
taining exhibition  cockerels.  He  desires  an  exhibition 
pullet,   so  he  chooses  standard   females  with  which  he 


Practical  Principles  of  Breeding 


27 


WHITE  WYANDOTTE. 
Courtesy   of  Arthur   C.   Duston. 


28  Science  axu  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

mates  a  male  of  pullet  coloring.  He  has  a  breed  whose 
combs  are  erect  in  the  male  and  lopped  in  the  female. 
He  mates  a  standard  female  with  a  male  whose 
comb  is  lopped,  or  a  standard  male  with  a  female  whose 
comb  is  erect  thereby  producing  a  greater  proportion 
of  birds  with  standard  qualifications.  The  student  will 
note  that  this  breeder  is  merely  taking  advantage  of 
certain  laws  of  inheritance  to  produce  certain  results. 
Whether  single  or  double  mating  is  used  for  a  definite 
result,  the  skill  in  mating  lies  at  the  basis  of  success. 
Whether  one  or  the  other  is  the  better,  or  the  more 
scientific,  or  the  more  natural,  or  the  more  complex, 
matters  little  since  the  fact  remains  that  both  are  in 
vogue  and  are  practiced,  hence  must  be  understood. 

Having  decided  upon  the  object  to  be  attained  and 
the  method  of  mating,  the  next  step  will  be  to  choose  indi- 
vidual birds  for  the  mating.  From  the  breeding  chart 
one  can  see  that  either  the  sire  or  the  dam  may  be 
chosen  to  govern  the  ultimate  preponderance  of  blood 
according  to  the  selection  made  for  the  line  of  descent. 
The  ideal  would,  perhaps,  be  to  have  both  the  dam 
and  sire  equally  good  for  the  object  in  view,  at  the  be- 
ginning, thus  gaining  time  and  a  nearer  approach  to 
perfection.  If  either  were  the  better,  then  lean  to  the 
best  original  blood.  Many  claim  that  better  result?  flow 
from  a  strong  sire  because  of  certain  influences  ex- 
erted over  a  female  by  a  male  and  that  the  male  has 
much  to  do  with  shape.  In  either  case,  the  sire  and 
dam  should  be  well  known  and  then  the  results  of 
their  breeding  will  be  fairly  certain.  Watch  carefully 
every  tendency  in  the  offspring,  again  choosing  in- 
telligently the  second  and  future  matings  with  an  eye 
single  to  improvement.  If  a  sire  or  dam  proves  to  be 
an  excellent  getter  do  not  fail  to  breed  him  or  her  as 


Practical  Principles  of  Breeding  29 

long  as  fertility  exists.  But  do  not  use  a  sire  later 
than  the  original  sire  whose  powers  have  not  been  test- 
ed, even  though  he  may  be  the  son  of  an  exceptional 
bird.  To  ignore  this  caution  is  to  spell  disaster  to  the 
progeny  of  such  haphazard  matings. 

In  choosing  the  fowls  for  mating,  health  and  sound 
bodily  vigor  are  essential.  A  tendency  to  weakness  is 
often  inherited.  [Maturity  and  an  even,  all  around  de- 
velopment are  desired.  Any  faults  in  the  male  should 
not  be  evident  in  the  females  and  z'ice  versa.  The  male 
should  be  alert,  aggressive  and  businesslike.  Both  sexes 
should  as  nearly  approach  the  standard  of  excellence 
for  the  object  as  is  possible,  not  neglecting  weight. 

Results  have  usually  been  found  satisfactory  where 
the  younger  of  either  sex  is  mated  to  an  older  fowl 
of  the  other  sex.  For  example,  a  cockerel  to  a  yearling 
hen,  or  older  hen,  and  a  pullet  to  a  cock-bird.  This 
combination  seems  to  combine  vigor  and  fertility. 

Improving  a  Strain — All  that  has  been  given  is  ap- 
plicable at  this  time  and  in  addition  the  introduction  of 
new  blood  into  the  strain  may  at  times  be  considered 
beneficial.  To  do  tliis  without  running  into  the  dan- 
gers of  out-breeding  is  accomplished  by  proving  the 
new^  blood.  This  is  done  by  mating  a  known  sire  or 
dam  to  an  outside  female  or  male  whose  qualifications 
come  within  our  intelligent  judgment.  Pf  the  offspring 
of  this  mating  conform  in  their  characteristics  to  the 
strain  we  are  improving,  then  it  is  safe  to  introduce 
the  blood  of  this  ofifspring  into  our  strain.  Both  in  the 
introduction  of  new  blood  into  the  strain  and  in  the 
improvement  of  the  old,  study  to  pick  out  for  future 
matings  the  very  best  of  the  flock.  Improvement  should 
be  general  and  not  sectional.  Consistent  eflfort  will  be 
amply  rewarded. 


30  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Sterility — Sterility  often  occurs  from  causes  well  with- 
in the  control  of  the  breeder.  Where  a  male  has  too 
many  females,  he  is  very  apt  to  tire  out  and  become 
sterile.  He  may  even  be  valueless  for  more  than  one 
season  because  of  this.  A  rest  and  better  care  is  need- 
ed in  such  cases.  Too  long  a  rest  may  result  poorly 
for  his  general  health.  Many  times  the  male  is  not 
well  matured  or  receives  too  little  food  because  of  his 
attention  to  the  females  at  feeding-  time.  Weakness 
results  and  sterility  follows.  Sterility  in  either  sex  can 
only  be  told  by  tests. 

Females  are  also  given  to  sterility  from  removable 
causes.  Too  many  females  to  a  male  may  result  in  non- 
service.  Many  male  birds  have  favorites  to  the  neglect 
of  the  non-favorites.  A  new  male  usually  corrects  the 
latter,  while  the  former  needs  a  division  of  the  females. 
]\Iany  hens  become  sterile  from  being  out  of  condition. 
Being  excessively  fat  is  the  greatest  enemy  of  fertility. 
Too  many  fluff  feathers  may  often  interfere  with  serv- 
ice. An  excessive  Qgg  production  may  weaken  the 
germ  life. 

Serving  Capacity  of  a  Male— The  number  of  females 
to  male  depends  entirely  upon  the  age  and  vigor  of 
the  male  bird.  No  set  rule  can  be  laid  down.  An  ac- 
tive cockerel  well  cared  for  has  often  run  with  and 
served  well  as  many  as  forty  birds.  The  same  cock- 
erel in  different  quarters  might  be  able  to  handle  no 
more  than  ten  or  fifteen  females.  This  also  depends 
somewhat  upon  the  number  of  laying  hens  in  a  flock 
a>  they  are  usually  more  attentive  to  the  male  and 
therefore  obtain  more  service  to  the  neglect  of  the  less 
productive  hens. 

Again,  this  question  depends  upon  the  mode  of  serv- 
ice.    Many  claim  that  a  vigorous  male  need  impregnate 


Practical  Principles  of  Breeding  31 


WHITE   WYANDOTTE. 
Courtesy   of  Arthur  C.    Duston. 


32  SciEiNXE   AND   AkT  OF    PoULTRV   CULTURE 

a  female  but  few  times  during  her  laying  period.  Im- 
pregnation ma}-  occur  in  a  da}'  or  the  sperm  life  may  lie 
in  the  oviduct  for  a  longer  period  awaiting  a  ripe  ovum. 
One  service  has  often  impregnated  a  small  clutch  of 
eggs.  Therefore  it  will  be  seen  that  a  lusty  cockerel 
under  right  management  might  serve  many  dozens  of 
hens  successfully.  To  stand  a  cockerel  in  stud  in  this 
way  could  easily  be  abused,  hence  judgment  must  be 
exercised  not  to  impair  the  power  of  the  male  and  at 
the  same  time  surely  impregnate  every  ovum. 

Cocks  are  not  as  strong  servers  as  cockerels,  as  a 
rule,  and  should  not  be  crowded  as  much  as  a  younger 
bird.  Every  year  weakens  the  reproductive  powers  of 
a  male.  A  valuable  bird  should  be  given  less  to  do  and 
thereby  his  powers  conserved  ihr  a  longer  period. 

Where  more  than  one  male  is  at  large  with  a  female, 
no  set  time  can  be  assigned  when  one  male  will  predom- 
inate in  the  offspring.  If  one  is  withdrawn,  his  in- 
fluence has  been  known  to  impregnate  eggs  for  many 
days.  It  is  usually  safe  to  sa\-  that  three  weeks  will 
see  a  complete  clearance.  Nor  is  it  safe  to  say  that  the 
first  service  will  produce  uniformity  until  tlie  sperm 
is  exhausted  as  it  often  happens  that  the  second  serv- 
ice will  fertilize  an  ovum  or  a  series  of  them  which  es- 
caped the  first  service  in  some  manner. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  better  to  give  a  valuable  male 
but  few  females  to  serve,  although  his  powers  may  be 
much  greater,  and  lessen  his  duties  with  age  if  it  is  de- 
sired to  keep  him. 

The  service  of  other  domestic  fowls  which  do  not 
pair  off  should  be  about  one-half  of  that  of  chickens 
to  be  the  most  satisfactory. 

CoNniTIONING    BREF.nERS. 

To  have  breeders  in  jjood  condition   for  the  best  re- 


Practical  Principles  of  Breeding  23 

suits,  one  should  begin  several  weeks  before  the  eggs 
are  to  be  saved  for  incubation  purposes.  Avoid  any 
tendency  to  force  for  egg  production.  The  care,  the  feed- 
ing, the  yarding,  every  step  taken  should  look  only 
to  develop  a  strong,  active,  vigorous  sire  and  dam,  and 
the  result  should  be  a  perfect  germ  in  every  egg.  Keep 
down  mites,  lice  or  other  irritating  troubles.  If  the  fe- 
males are  overfat,  short  ration  them  for  a  few  days 
and  be  certain  to  give  the  male  all  he  needs  to  eat  as 
he  rarely  ever  becomes  overfat.  If  they  are  returned 
from  some  show,  be  sure  to  quarantine  them  for  about 
two  weeks  to  insure  freedom  from  disease.  Make  the 
females  exercise  heavily  as  that  imparts  vigor  and 
health.  The  germ  life  of  an  egg  taken  from  a  healthy, 
vigorous,  well-cared-for  mating  will  repay  all  effort 
spent  in  obtaining  it. 

Care  of  Breeders. 
Feeding  and  Exercise — Having  prepared  the  breeders  to 
I^roduce  a  good  germ,  the  care  should  now  be  to  continue 
right  conditions.  The  feeding  should  be  considered  with 
reference  to  climatic  conditions  and  be  balanced  to  give 
germ  vitality.  This  means  that  the  dam  and  sire  should 
each  receive  such  food  as  will  give  strength  and  vigor 
rather  than  tending  toward  the  production  of  fat.  Too 
much  mash  will  tend  to  make  the  eggs  watery  or  the 
offspring  weak,  or  may  force  extra  egg  production. 
Too  much  of  any  one  ration  tends  toward  weakness  in 
the  parent  stock.  The  chapter  upon  Foods  and  Feed- 
ing will  give  valuable  information  upon  this  subject. 
The  main  thing,  after  all,  is  not  how  scientific  you  feed 
but  that  variety  enough  be  given  that  each  bird  may 
receive  an  opportunit\'  to  obtain  not  only  what  its  own 
physical  needs  demand  but  also  that  the  germ  life  may 
be  as  well  supplied.     To  this  add  the  other  essential,  ex- 


34  SciExcK  AND  Art  of  L^oultkv  Culture 

ercisc,   and   success   is  certain.      Plenty   of   range   is  al- 
ways desirable  when  available. 

Season  and  Climate — The  season  of  the  year' and  the 
climate  will  both  be  factors  in  the  care  of  breeders.  If 
they   have   been    shijipcd    from   one    climate   to   another, 


BUFF  PLYMOUTH  ROCK. 
Courtesy   of  N.   M.   McCullough. 

the  difference  in  altitude  or  temperature,  or  both,  may 
cause  discomfort.  The  inconvenience  from  tempera- 
ture may  be  entirely  overcome  by  varying  the  protec- 
tion and  the  feeding  to  meet  the  conditions.     The  vary- 


Practical  Principles  of  Breeding  35 

ing  seasons  must  be  considered  as  more  of  the  heat- 
producing  foods  are  desirable  when  dampness  or  chill- 
iness is  present,  while  higher  temperatures  during 
warmer  seasons  would  require  less  of  such  foods. 
Judgment  should  be  exercised  to  harmonize  the  var- 
ious factors  of  environment  to  the  fowl's  comfort  and 
needs. 

Special  Care  of  tJic  Sexes — Some  care  is  needed  for 
one  sex  that  is  not  essential  to  the  other  because  of 
individual  needs. 

The  males  frequently  fail  to  obtain  enough  food 
when  given  no  extra  care.  Their  tendency  to  call 
their  mates,  show  them  the  food  and  keep  away 
intruders  very  often  takes  their  attention  until  all  the 
food  is  gone  or  nearly  so.  To  overcome  this  loss  and 
at  the  same  time  not  overfeed  the  females  attach  a 
small  trough  or  receptacle  to  the  wall  of  the  pen  just 
high  enough  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  the  hens  and  yet 
within  the  reach  of  the  male  bird.  This  receptacle  must 
be  very  narrow,  or  otherwise  arranged  not  to  allow 
the  females  to  alight  upon  it  and  thus  obtain  the  food. 
For  some  males,'  where  there  is  little  difiference  in  the 
height  of  the  sexes,  other  means,  such  as  a  private 
feeding  place,  are  necessary.  During  the  height  of  the 
breeding  season,  it  may  be  well  to  give  the  sire  extra 
meat  and  green  food  as  well  as  grains. 

If  a  male  is  serving  a  number  of  females,  removing 
him  from  their  sight  and  hearing  for  a  day  or  two 
will  rest  him  and  be  no  loss  to  the  females.  Such  a  rest 
every  few  days  will  beget  stronger  germs.  Do  not 
pen  males  together  or  keep  them  too  long  from  fe- 
males, except  during  molt.  Even  young  cockerels  in- 
tended for  breeding  purposes  are  better  raised  with  a 
few   hens   to   teach   them   gendeness   and    attentiveness, 


36 


.Scii:.\ei-:  a.xi 


Art 


P..L- 


;v  Culture 


as  well   as   insure  better  developnient  of  the  j^encrative 
organs. 

If  the  male  should  seem  rather  inattentive  to  his 
mates,  it  is  well  to  arouse  his  latent  nature  by  puttins? 
another   active    male   in    an   adjoining   pen    for   a    short 


BFFF  COCHIN. 
Courtesy  of  Dr.  J.   J.  Haro. 


time.  It  is  surprising  how  this  influence  stirs  a  sire 
to  prompt  and  courteous  attention.  It  sometimes  hap- 
pens that  the  male  is  too  attentive  for  the  well-being 
of  the  flock.  In  such  a  case,  it  is  well  to  provide  more 
females  or  stand  him  at  stud  as  often  as  is  necessarv. 


Practical  Principles  of  Breeding  37 

Many  use  two  males  to  a  pen  and  keep  more  females 
by  allowing  each  male  the  freedom  of  the  flock  every 
other  day,  but  this  destroys  line  breeding  records 
where  records  are  desired. 

The  females  require  much  less  attention  and  should 
be  raised  apart  from  the  young  males,  since  the  latter 
are  inclined  to  attempt  the  exercise  of  their  powers  long 
before  any  necessity  exists.  This  activity  worries  and 
retards  the  best  development  of  the  quieter  sex. 

Pedigree. 
Line  breeding  is  of  value  only  when  the  record  of 
such  breeding  is  available.  A  pedigree  makes  this  al- 
ways obtainable  since  the  recorded  ancestry  is  what 
constitutes  a  pedigree.  Any  breeder  who  is  looking 
for  success  must  record  not  only  the  names  but  also 
the  characteristics  of  each  bird  in  the  line  of  descent, 
which  will  serve  as  a  guide  to  each  bird's  value  as  a 
breeder.  Line  breeding  by  the  use  of  trap  nests  is  the 
best  available  method.  Many  breeders  trap  nest  for  pedi- 
grees the  first  year  and  use  that  record  to  pick  out  the 
breeding  pens  for  the  second  year  where  a  laying  record 
is  sought.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  heavy  producers 
during  the  fall  and  winter  cannot  at  the  same  time  be 
good  breeding  stock  for  the  following  spring,  therefore 
an  added  reason  exists  for  pedigrees  for  the  first  season 
so  that  the  stock  may  be  held  nonproductive  until  the 
breeding  season  of  the  second  year. 


Chapter  V. 

EGG    STRUCTURE,    FORMATION    AND    GERM 
DEVELOPMENT. 

Structure. 

Shell — Take  one  or  more  eggs  for  study.  The  outer 
surface  seems  to  be  a  hard  mass  of  an  even  color. 
This  is  composed  mainly  of  crystals  of  calcium  car- 
bonate, colored  by  certain  pigments  which  give  the 
eggs  of  certain  breeds  and  strains  an  even  and  char- 
acteristic color.  This  wall  of  calcareous  crystals  is 
porous,  permitting  of  the  ingress  and  egress  of  certain 
necessary  and  oftentimes  unnecessary  gases  and  other 
substances.  These  pores  are,  to  a  certain  extent,  closed 
by  a  mucilagenous  coating  given  it  just  before  expul- 
sion. This  protection  is  not  of  long  duration.  This 
porousness  is  the  basic  condition  upon  which  depends 
success  or  failure  in  egg  preservation  and  incubation 
as  well  as  of  other  important  processes.  The  shell  is  ten 
per  cent  of  the  normal  egg. 

Lining — Two  layers  of  very  thin  tough  lining  lay 
next  to  the  shell  in  an  egg  and  closely  adhere  except 
where  they  separate  to  inclose  the  air  cell  at  the  large 
end  of  the  egg. 

White  or  Albumen — Chiefly  surrounding  the  yolk  lies 
the  white  or  albumen  of  the  egg.  It  is  in  layers  of 
varying  density,  the  outer  layers  being  the  more  watery. 
Extending  from  the  yolk  toward  either  end  and  almost 
passing  through  the  albumen  are  two  twisted,  cordlike 
38 


Egg    Structure  39 

projections  called  chalazae.  Some  claim  their  office  is  to 
hold  the  yolk  in  position.  The  white  is  fifty-seven  per 
cent  of  the  normal  egg  and  consists  of  eighty-six  and  one- 
half  per  cent  water,  twelve  per  cent  protein  and  one  and 
one-half  per  cent  fats,  minerals,  etc. 

Yolk — The  yellow  portion  of  the  eg-g  is  reallv  soon 
composed  of  two  separate  and  distinct  parts,  the  em- 
bryonic and  the  vitelline,  the  former  the  life  or  em- 
bryo and  the  latter  the  food  storehouse.  The  former 
surrounds  the  latter  except  that  the  embryonic  portion 
below  the  blastoderm  and  toward  the  center  of  the 
vitelline  is  thickened,  being  connected  to  the  outer  por- 
tion by  a  narrow  neck.  The  yolk  is  thirty-two  per  cent 
of  the  normal  egg  and  consists  of  fifty  per  cent  water, 
sixteen  per  cent  protein,  thirty-three  per  cent  carbohy- 
drates and  fats,  and  one  per  cent  minerals,  etc. 

Germ — The  germ  is  the  life  or  cell  which  develops 
into  a  distinct  creation.  The  blastoderm  is  the  skin  or 
surface  of  the  germ  or  embryo.  The  fertility  of  the 
germ  can  be  determined  by  close  observation.  Some 
will  more  readily  note  the  parts  by  means  of  a  mag- 
nifying glass.  If  an  egg  is  broken  into  a  saucer,  one 
will  note,  imbedded  in  the  upper  surface  of  the  yolk, 
a  small  circular  spot  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  Tlie  fertile  germ  spot  will  appear  with  an 
outer  rim  or  circle,  clear  or  opaque,  in  the  center  of 
which  are  little  white  dots.  The  infertile  germ  lacks 
the  circular  rim  and  has  a  whitish  appearance,  covered 
by  small  clear  spots.  The  fertile  germ  may  shift  some- 
what in  appearance  because  some  development  may 
have  taken  place  before  the  expulsion  of  the  egg  and 
the  consequent  checking  of  the  growth  of  the  blasto- 
derm by  the  egg  becoming  cool.     Again,  the  subsequent 


40  Science  and  Art  oe  Poultry  Culture 

warming  of  other  hens  in  the  act  of  laying  may  have 
varied  it  to  a  small  extent.  ihe  reason  for  keeping 
eggs  intended  for  incuhation  in  a  cool  place  is  now 
becoming  apparent. 

Egg  Formation. 
Attached  to  the  rear  of  the  diaphragm,  just  below  and 
to  the  left  of  the  spinal  column,  will  he  found  a  cluster 
of  minute  egg  cells  in  any  female  which  may  or  may 
not  lay  in  the  near  future.  These  will  vary  in  size 
and  development.  This  is  the  ovary  region  of  the  fe- 
male fowl.  The  more  mature  the  female,  the  more  cells 
seem  present.  Each  one  of  these  yellowish  capsules 
contains  an  undeveloped  egg  or  ovum  enclosed  within 
a  membrane  called  the  ovisac.  This  ovum  has  upon  its 
surface  a  minute  light  spot  which  is  the  formative  cen- 
ter of  the  egg'  or  its  germ  spot.  This  ovum  enlarges 
and  develops  until  it  bursts  from  the  ovisac  and  leaves 
the  ovary  passing  down  into  the  fallopian  tube  or  ovi- 
duct. This  oviduct,  or  egg  tube,  when  in  service,  var- 
ies in  size  and  folds  within  the  abdominal  cavity.  Its 
actual  length  varies  from  eighteen  to  thirty  inches  in 
mature  fowls.  Within  this  duct,  passing  from  the  ovary 
to  the  cloaca  is  carried  on  the  development  of  the 
ovum  into  the  completed  egg.  Just  before  the  egg  cell 
leaves  the  ovary  or  soon  after  passing  into  the  ovi- 
duct, the  sperm  from  the  male  fowl  enters  through  the 
membranes  of  the  cell  and  unites  with  the  formative 
center  or  germ  life  of  the  egg  and  fertilizes  it.  Pass- 
ing down  the  oviduct,  the  fertilized  germ  cell  begins 
to  divide,  each  half  enlarging  and  again  dividing  un- 
til these  units  make  up  all  the  possibilities  that  lie  latent 
in  the  egg.  In  rare  cases  this  process  of  germ  devel- 
opment   has    been    carried    out    for    too    long  a  period 


Egg    Structure  41 

within  the  oviduct  and  when  the  egg  is  expelled  and 
laid  the  cooling  process  kills  the  germ  life.  Passing 
through  the  mucous  linings  of  the  oviduct,  forced 
through  by  a  twisting  movement  of  the  muscles,  the 
ovum  develops,  takes  on  the  layers  of  albumen  called  the 
white  of  an  egg,  acquires  the  chalazae,  next  the  soft 
shell  or  two  outer  membrane  linings  just  below  the 
shell,  and  lastly  the  coloring  and  the  shell  itself.  The 
air  cell  between  the  linings  is  also  provided  for.  Be- 
ing completed,  the  egg  passes  through  the  lower  mouth 
of  the  oviduct  called  the  cloaca  and  thence  out  of  the 
vent  into  the  nest.  Frequent  gathering  and  proper 
care  will  give  good  results  when  incubation  proceeds. 

A  few  words  upon  deformed  eggs  will  be  proper 
at  this  time.  Some  discussion  has  arisen  with  refer- 
ence to  the  value  of  deformed  eggs.  Some  have  claimed 
excellent  results  from  fowls  raised  from  such  eggs 
and  claiming  that  the  stock  therefrom  did  not  reproduce 
the  errors.  True  it  is  that  Nature  tends  to  right  her 
errors,  yet  there  is  the  other  law  that  like  tends  to  be- 
get like.  The  general  consensus  of  opinion  leans 
strongly  to  the  view  that  good  fowls  are  not  the  com- 
mon result  obtained  from  deformed  eggs  and  that  there 
is  a  strong  tendency  for  the  evil  to  be  transmitted.  The 
latter  view  seems  the  more  tenable  since  a  deformed 
egg  is  the  result  of  some  unnatural  condition.  If  the 
unnatural  condition  was  due  to  an  accident,  the  ten- 
dency to  produce  a  poor  bird  would  not  be  strong.  If 
due  to  some  fvmctional  disorder,  then  certainly  the 
weakness  would  tend  to  be  a  constant  evil  in  the  line 
of  descent.  Otherwise,  our  laws  of  inheritance  are  of 
little  force.  The  safe  way  would  be  to  keep  within  the 
bounds  of  safety  and  reproduce  only  from  well-shaped 
eggs. 


42  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Practical  Germ  Development. 

The  practical  study  of  germ  development  or  embry- 
ology, is  one  of  great  interest.  The  equipment  needed  is 
inexpensive.  A  few  pure  white  plates  or  saucers,  a  mag- 
nifying lens,  a  -few  sitting  hens  or  an  incubator,  a  sup- 
ply of  eggs  and  a  good  tester  are  all  that  are  required. 

Tester — The  most  important  part  of  the  equijjnient 
is  the  tester.  The  ordinary  tester  usually  sent  with  an 
incubator  will  do,  yet  one  which  gives  a  stronger  light 
is  more  desirable.  Such  may  be  obtained  by  using  a 
strong  calcium  or  electric  light  and  a  reflector  or 
even  a  bicycle  lamp  may  be  brought  into  use. 
Either  of  these  lights  will  need  a  hollow  galvan- 
ized iron  cylinder  cover  about  six  inches  in  diameter  and 
twelve  inches  high.  In  one  side  of  this  cylinder,  make 
a  circular  hole  about  five  inches  in  diameter,  the  cen- 
ter of  which  will  be  on  a  level  with  the  flame  or  light. 
Fit  this  opening  with  a  tube  about  three  inches  long 
and  which  narrows  down  to  a  three  inch  mouth.  .\ 
piece  of  thick  black  cloth  is  next  placed  over  the  mouth 
of  the  tube  and  held  in  place  by  a  ring  which  fits  over 
the  tube  closely.  In  the  middle  of  this  cloth  an  opening 
is  made,  a  little  smaller  than  an  egg.  Air  may  be  sup- 
plied to  the  cylinder  by  several  small  holes  near  the 
bottom  in  the  side  opposite  the  tube. 

Testing — A  dark  room  is  best,  although  with  all  the 
shades  down  one  can  sometimes  see  fairly  well.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  wait  until  late  in  the  evening  when  a  dark  room 
is  not  available.  Many  use  a  small  closet  which  has  no 
window,  for  an  egsi;  testing  room.  Eacli  egg  is  held 
against  the  light  sidewise  or  endwise,  depending  upon 
whether  one  wishes  to  look  against  the  light.  While 
holding  the  egg  against  the  opening,  shift  its  position 
to    facilitate    observation.      The    large    end    toward    the 


Egg    Structure  43 

opening  will  be  found  a  good  position  at  certain  stages 
of  incubation. 

P.rcparation — Having  at  hand  the  necessary  equip- 
ment and  a  good  source  of  supply  for  eggs  (both 
white  and  .dark  shelled),  one  may  set  quite  a  number 
either  under  a  hen  or  in  an  incubator  or  both.  Each 
day  for  several  days,  start  to  incubate  a  few  more  eggs 
properl}-  dated  in  order  that  a  comparison  may  be  made 
between  those  several  days  along  and  those  less  devel- 
oped. Begin  the  study  with  the  white-shelled  eggs, 
since  they  are  much  more  easily  observed.  Do  not  fail 
every  day  to  study  the  eggs  tested,  by  breaking  them 
into  a  saucer. 

Groivth — Assuming  that  the  eggs  being  incubated  are 
of  even  fertility  and  strength,  we  find  that  by  the  ap- 
plication of  heat  the  interrupted  activity  of  the  egg- 
germ  is  being  resumed.  Cells  are  multiplying  rapidly. 
The  formation  of  the  various  organs  of  the  young  fowl 
has  begun.  The  blastoderm  is  increasing  in  size  and 
shows  a  faint  shadowy  circle  nearly  one-half  inch  in 
diameter  at  the  end  of  the  first  day.  The  brain  and 
spinal  cord  are  forming  and  many  other  parts  will  be- 
come visible  to  a  good  lens  within  a  day  or  so.  The  blas- 
toderm will  always  float  on  the  upper  side  of  the  egg. 

The  second  day  the  naked  eye  will  note  an  increase 
in  the  size  of  the  blastoderm  as  well  as  a  deeper  shad- 
ow. A  streak,  in  front  of  which  we  will  look  for  the 
embryo,  has  now  appeared. 

The  third  day  of  incubation  shows  the  blastoderm 
still  larger  and  of  a  reddish  color.  The  circulation  of 
blood  has  begun.  Note  that  the  outer  rim  of  the  blas- 
toderm is  darker  than  the  center,  caused  by  a  larger 
border  vein.  Note  a  germ  but  one  day  old  as  well  as  one 
two  days  old  and  compare  them  with  the  one  at  hand. 


44  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

The  ramifying  circulatory  system  is  quite  visible  with 
a  small  glass  and  should  be  plain  to  the  naked  eye. 

The  third  and  fourth  days  may  show  eggs  with  no 
signs  of  development,  they  being  infertile.  Replace  them 
for  a  little  further  study.  Some  may  show  a  dark  or 
red  circle  possibly  an  inch  in  diameter.  This  means 
that  the  germ  has  died  through  weakness  or  injury  and 
the  ring  of  blood  is  the  result  of  a  hemorrhage.  If  the 
germ  had  developed  another  day  and  died,  a  dark  spot 
may  have  appeared  which  is  the  dead  embryo.  When 
unnatural  cloudiness  appears  at  the  fifth  or  sixth  day, 
the  germ  has  died.  Always  open  and  study  these  va- 
riations in  comparison  with  the  live  germ.  Do  not  be 
penurious  with  eggs  when  studying  germ  life,  as  it  is 
expense  well  invested. 

At  the  end  of  the  fifth  day,  the  embryo  should  be 
very  distinct  with  the  circulatory  system  at  least  half- 
way around  the  yolk  and  pushing  across  the  air  cell. 
If  evaporation  has  been  too  hasty  it  dries  out  the  al- 
bumen between  the  yolk  and  air  cell  causing  it  to  thick- 
en and  toughen  thus  hindering  complete  action.  The 
embryo  will  be  quite  dark  with  a  spot  near  one  end 
which  is  the  eye  formation.  Upon  careful  inspection 
there  should  be  motion  visible. 

By  the  eighth  day  the  embryo  should  be  a  pretty 
lively  creature  with  the  blood  vessels  nearly  or  quite 
enclosing  the  yolk.  The  veins  of  the  allantois  or 
respiratory  organ  of  the  germ  life  has  by  this  time  ex- 
tended over  the  entire  surface  of  the  inner  membrane 
or  lining  lying  near  the  shell  and  enclosing  all  the  e^g 
contents.  Oxygen  is  furnished  by  the  allantois  to  the 
developing  germ.  In  about  three  or  four  more  days  the 
germ  has  assumed  its  real  shape  with  every  organ  de- 
veloped   and    from    now  on  it  is  a  question  of  steady 


Egg    Structure  45 

growth  under  right  conditions.  About  the  four- 
teenth day  the  temperature  rises  in  the  incubator,  caused 
by  the  increased  activity  of  the  developing  hfe  with- 
in. Any  variations  in  appearances  should  be  studied 
carefully.  The  air  cell  still  shows  empty  and  is  rapidly 
increasing,  due  to  the  escape  of  gases  formed  within 
the  shell  and  perhaps,  by  undue  evaporation. 

Beginning  about  the  nineteenth  day,  the  tempera- 
ture again  rises,  caused  by  still  further  activity  upon  the 
part  of  the  imprisoned  birds.  The  air  gell  may  be  dif- 
ficult to  find  in  some  eggs.  This  is  because  the  wee 
fowl  has  broken  through  the  inner  membraneous  lin- 
ing into  the  air  cell.  This  marks  the  beginning  of  the 
use  of  the  lungs  and  a  peep  is  likely  to  be  heard  from 
within  the  prison  walls.  In  a  few  hours  the  pipping 
should  begin  and  by  the  end  of  the  twent}--first  day  all 
live  chicks  should  be  in  their  new  world. 

Now  make  a  study  of  the  eggs  not  properly  incubated. 
Note  the  enclosing  of  the  yolk  within  the  abdomen 
of  the  baby  fowls  just  before  pipping  time  and  the  sub- 
sequent closing  up  of  the  navel.  Note  through  the 
whole  period  the  obstruction  given  by  the  dark-shelled 
eggs  against  the  rays  of  light.  Study  well  to  under- 
stand the  causes  of  the  failures  in  incubation,  such  as 
wrong  temperatures,  lack  of  vein  development  and  the 
consequent  starvation  of  the  embryo,  strangulation  by 
unused  albumen  while  pipping,  death  by  exhaustion 
due  to  lack  of  sufficient  air  or  by  excessive  early  venti- 
lation, trouble  from  toughened  or  thick  shells,  and  from 
many  other  causes  really  beyond  and  back  of  the  period 
of  incubation.  Some  of  these  causes  will  appear  more 
clearly  if  one  will  study  the  natural  and  artificial  in- 
cubation side  by  side,  assuming  that  the  natural  method 
is  the  nearer  correct  of  the  tv/o. 


Chapter    VI. 
INTUBATION. 

Gexeral. 
In  suggesting  a  few  of  the  principles  of  incubation 
we  would  desire  the  reader  or  student  to  realize  how 
little  is  really  known  about  the  subject.  One  investi- 
gator believes  he  has  solved  aright  certain  elementary 
principles  while  another  obtains  the  same  results  in  an 
entirely  different  and  seemingly  antagonistic  method. 
One  believes  that  the  cooling  of  eggs  is  a  minor  matter, 
another  that  it  is  all  important.  One  supplies  extra  mois- 
ture, another  does  not.  Some  turn  eggs  kept  before 
incubation,  others  deem  it  useless.  One  says  a  better 
hatch  is  obtained  if  the  hen  is  denied  free  access  to  oyster 
shells,  while  another  says  nature  will  not  allow  the  egg- 
shell to  be  unduly  thick  or  hard.  These  and  many  other 
elements  are  the  subject  of  much  difference  of  honest 
opinion  and  we  believe  that  science  is  traveling  rap- 
idly toward  the  correct  solution  of  these  many  problems. 
The  investigations  of  the  author  have  forced  him  to 
shift  his  position  upon  various  matters  of  belief  and 
unless  one  enters  the  subject  of  incubation  with  a  mind 
open  to  conviction  regardless  of  former  ideas  he  or  she 
will  contribute  but  little  to  the  advance  of  poultry  science. 
Again  one  must  realize  that  no  one  problem  can  be 
solved  without  taking  many  others  into  consideration 
at  the  same  time ;  hence,  conclusions  may  be  widely 
variant  from  the  real  truth  and  yet  one  be  honest  in 
reaching  his  decisions. 

46 


Incubation  47 

However  let  no  person  hesitate  because  there  are 
conflicts  of  opinion  and  unsettled  or  variant  methods 
employed.  Success  is  certain  to  one  if  due  care  and 
judgment  are  exercised  in  following  any  one  of  the  meth- 
ods now  in  being,  especially  if  he  will  intelligently  handle 
the  hens  or  follow  the  directions  of  the  manufacturer 
of  the  incubator  used.  That  either  is  no  child's  task 
would  be  well  to  remember. 

The  science  and  art  of  artificial  incubation  is  of 
ancient  origin.  In  China  and  Egypt  it  was  practiced 
before  the  Christian  era  in  crude  ovens  and  has  become 
a  distinct  business  zealously  and  secretly  guarded,  being 
handed  down  from,  father  to  son  in  many  cases.  In 
fact,  the  present  chicken  of  Egypt  is  the  exact  proto- 
type of  the  carvings  known  to  date  back  two  thousand 
years  before  the  Christian  era.  The  native  hen  of  Egypt 
has,  centuries  ago.  lost  her  desire  or  instinct  to  sit. 
The  same  question  has  been  raised  in  America  and 
answered  by  the  owners  of  long  bred  strains  to  the 
effect  that  the  broody  habit  was  being  lessened  from  year 
to  year. 

Incubation  may  be  defined  as  the  development  of 
the  fertile  egg  germ  from  its  conception  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  chick  from  its  shell.  Some  may  take  exceptions 
to  the  point  at  which  it  begins  and  place  it  at  a  later 
time,  but  we  prefer  to  think  of  it  in  the  above  manner, 
if  for  no  other  reason  than  to  suggest  earlier  consider- 
ation and  care  than  is  usually  given. 

Incubation  may  be  either  natural  or  artificial  or  a 
combination  of  both  methods.  The  importance  of  either 
is  little  realized  and  the  latter  has  supplanted  the  for- 
mer in  all  large  establishments.  \Miatever  of  disfavor 
artificial  incubation  may  receive  is  due  mainly  to  poor 
machines   and    ignorant   operators.      The   percentage   of 


48  Science  axd  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

hatches  raised  to  maturity  with  the  same  eggs  and 
the  same  intelHgence  will  not  differ  by  either  method. 
It  then  resolves  itself  into  other  considerations  which 
^vill  be  discussed  later. 

The  object  of  this  chapter  is  to  assist  in  obtaining 
better  results  in  incubation,  and  before  one  sets  their 
hens  or  obtains  or  uses  a  machine  let  them  consider 
well  such  information  as  will  enable  them  to  better 
appreciate  the  hen  and  to  purchase  a  better  machine 
as  well  as  to  operate  it  more  satisfactorily.  Whether 
the  natural  or  artificial  method  is  employed,  if  fifty 
per  cent  of  the  original  eggs  used  are  incubated  and 
raised  to  maturity,  the  operator  should  feel  that  he  or 
she  has  accomplished  average  results. 

Eggs  for  Incubating.     Kind  and  Care. 

The  first  consideration  in  choosing  eggs  for  incubation 
is  to  select  the  class,  breed  and  variety  of  fowl  you  wish 
to  reproduce.  Affecting  that  choice  is  the  purpose  for 
which  you  intend  the  product.  Show  stock,  broilers, 
capons,  eggs  for  market  or  other  objects  would  mate- 
rially influence  one's  selection  of  eggs.  That  being  de- 
termined a  few  principles  should  be  kept  in  mind. 

If  you  desire  certain  knowledge  of  the  source  of  your 
eggs  the  trapnest  is  essential.  Select  eggs  that  are 
uniform  and  normal  in  size  and  perfect  in  shape.  When 
possible  use  the  eggs  of  one  class  or  breed  since  they 
will  incubate  more  evenly.  An  egg  that  is  small,  large, 
thin-shelled  or  has  lime  in  excess  in  the  form  of  warty- 
like  excrescences  is  very  likely  to  be  deficient  in  other 
respects.  If  intended  for  fancy  chicks  or  flock  improve- 
ment, evenness  of  color  would  also  be  considered.  Eggs 
have  been  known  to  incubate  after  having  been  kept 
for  many  weeks.     Age  tends  to  weaken  the  germ  life. 


Incubation'  49 

Two  weeks  under  right  conditions  is  as  long  as  eggs 
should  be  kept  and  the  fresher  the  better.  Pullets'  eggs 
do  not  throw  as  strong  chicks  as  eggs  from  yearling 
hens,  nor  is  the   fertility  usually  as  high.     To  insure  a 


RITF   COCHIN   CHICK. 
Courtesy    of    Dr.    J.    J.    Hare. 

strong  and  fertile  germ  the  parent  stock  should  be 
prime,  sound,  healthy  and  vigorous  and  their  breeding 
should  be  correct.  Proper  feeding  is  also  one  of  the 
most  important  factors  as  an  underfed  or  overfat  hen 
cannot   reproduce   satisfactorily. 


50  ScUi.NCE   AND   AkT  OF    i'oULTRY    CuLTURE 

The  care  of  eggs  intended  for  incubation  is  also  a 
subject  regarding  which  many  differ.  We  will  give  gen- 
eral principles  upon  which  the  majority  of  breeders  are 
agreed.  See  that  they  are  gathered  often  as  the  weather 
will  require.  They  must  not  be  chilled.  Keep  them  in 
a  place  where  the  temperature  will  stay  around  fifty- 
five  degrees  Fahrenheit  and  not  vary  more  than  ten 
degrees.  Pure  air  without  draughts  is  essential.  Many 
lay  a  cloth  or  paper  over  them  to  insure  protection. 
If  the  eggs  have  been  sent  from  a  distance  or  subjected 
to  some  disturbing  motion  allow  them  to  rest  a  day 
before  using.  Handle  as  little  as  possible.  Turn  them 
or  not  as  you  desire.  Personally  we  believe  turning 
them  occasionally  is  of  some  benefit  if  done  gently. 
Just  before  placing  in  the  incubator  or  under  a  hen 
many  give  them  an  antiseptic  bath  at  a  temperature  of 
sixty  degrees.  This  cleanses  and  disinfects  the  eggs 
and  many  claim  much  better  results.  It  also  lessens  the 
danger  of  contagion  from  eggs  shipped  in  from  other 
pens.  IMany  substances  are  used,  chief  among  them  a 
two  per  cent  carbolic  acid  solution  and  a  five  per  cent 
solution  of  pure  creolin.  About  seven  tablespoonsful  of 
creolin  to  one  gallon  of  water  makes  a  good  wash. 

Determixixg  Sex  and  Fertility  Before  axd  Durixg 
Incubatiox. 

Sex  before  exclusion  is  a  subject  which  had  better 
be  left  for  further  and  more  accurate  investigation  but 
to  give  a  few  ideas  which  have  been  put  forward  may 
result  in  more  interest  along  this  line.  Alany  claim  that 
sex  is  indicated  by  the  shape  of  the  egg,  a  roundish 
egg,  more  blunt  if  ycu  please,  is  the  tendency  of  eggs 
throwing  pullets.  Also  that  the  most  active  embryo 
in  point  of  development  is  apt  to  be  a  male.     ]\Iany  claim 


Incubation  51 

that  the  position  of  the  air-cell  indicates  sex.  They  claim 
that  the  air-cell  which  has  a  base  parallel  to  the  width 
of  the  egg-  will  usually  produce  a  cockerel,  while  the 
eggs,  the  base  of  the  air-cell  of  which  tend  to  vary  wide- 
ly from  such  position,  will  throw  a  pullet.  Others  claim 
fairly  good  control  in  mating  correctly  for  such  re- 
sults, keeping  in  mind  the  age  of  the  male  and  female. 
In  many  cases  where  pullets  are  desired  satisfactory 
results  have  been  attained  by  using  the  eggs  produced 
during  the  first  part  of  the  laying  period  of  a  hen,  while 
those  eggs  laid  in  the  later  portion  tend  to  throw  cock- 
erels. This  is  applying  a  known  principle  in  animal 
breeding.  This  theory  may  be  entirely  thwarted  in 
many  instances  by  exceptional  vigor  in  either  male  or 
female. 

Known  fertility  before  incubation  is  claimed  as  fol- 
lows :  Upon  breaking  a  perfectly  fresh  egg  and  putting 
it  under  a  magnifying  glass  the  infertile  egg  shows 
simply  a  white  disk  marked  with  a  number  of  irregular 
clear  spaces.  The  fertile  germ  would  have  an  opaque 
white  rim  surrounding  a  fairly  transparent  center  in 
the  middle  of  which  is  a  lighter  spot  of  variable  ap- 
pearance. This  can  be  of  little  practical  value  to  the 
poultry  raiser.  A  practical  method  is  claimed  as  follows : 
Place  the  egg  sidewise  against  the  tester,  or  better  yet, 
with  the  big  end  upwards.  A  strongly  fertile  germ  will 
cast  quite  a  shadow  so  that  there  is  a  discernable  division 
between  the  yolk  and  the  albumen  with  a  darker  spot  or 
shadow  at  the  gemi  centre  which  always  floats  at  the  top 
of  the  yolk.  In  the  more  weakly  fertile  egg  germ  this 
diistinction  or  division  will  be  less  marked,  while  in  the 
egg  with  an  infertile  germ  the  contents  will  appear  clear 
or  milky  with  practically  no  distinction  between  the  yolk 
and  the  albumen.    This  method  is  claimed  bv  manv  to  be 


12  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

very  accurate  in  the  hands  of  an  experienced  person. 
Certain  it  is  that  a  strong  germ  does  have  the  tendency 
toward  the  above  result  which  is  increasingly  true  as  in- 
cubation proceeds  during  the  first  few  days.  To  what 
extent  that  light  colored  yolks  or  fertile  germs  whose  de- 
velopment was  less  at  the  egg  expulsion  period  would 
influence  to  a  wrong  decision  the  author  is  not  yet  pre- 
pared to  state.  The  fertility  of  eggs  during  incubation 
will  be  treated  under  the  testing  of  eggs  later  on  in 
this  chapter. 

Table  of  Time  Required  to  Ixcur.\te  Eggs. 

Time    to    incubate   de- 
pending   upon 
Kinds.  breeds    and    varieties. 

Canary    15  to  18  days 

Chicken    20    "  22  "' 

Duck   28    "  30  " 

Goose    28    "  30  " 

Guinea    28 

Pea  Fowl  27  to  30  " 

Pigeon    17  " 

Swan   40    "  45  " 

Turkey 28    "  30  " 

N.xtural  Versus  Artificial  Incubation. 

Where  one  wishes  to  raise  but  a  few  chicks  and  is 
satisfied  to  raise  them  during  the  regular  broody  season, 
there  is  no  particular  reason  for  not  allowing  them  to 
have  a  natural  mother.  Again  in  the  hands  of  busy  per- 
sons who  can  give  but  scant  care  to  a  brood  the  mother 
hen  might  give  better  results.  However,  to  the  average 
poultry  raiser,  where  more  than  one  hundred  chicks  are  to 
be  raised,  the  incubator  will  appeal  for  the  following 
reasons : 


Incubation  53 

Earlier  hatching  is  possible. 

Higher   markets   are   made   available. 

Always  ready  when  eggs  are  ready. 

Hen  is  kept  in  the  producing  yards. 

Capacity  does  not  depend  upon  having  hens  to  set. 

Requires  less  building  space   than   hens.'" 

Good   operator  will   hatch    higher  percentages. 

Less  labor  required   for  same  capacity.-* 

Absolute    immunity    from    vermin. 

No  breakage  or  desertion  by  hen.— ' 

Can  have  poultry  ready  for  fall  shows. 

Does  not  require  two  breeds  to  raise  non-setting  breeds. 

Cleaner  work  to  care  for  same  capacity. 

Natural  Incubation. 

Breeds — Choose  a  breed  and  .strain  of  that  breed  which 
produces  good  sitters  and  good  mothers.  Do  not  set 
a  fussy  hen  which  is  quarrelsome  and  easily  disturbed. 
Rather  take  tlie  quiet,  docile  hens  so  that  breakage  and 
loss  by  trampling  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Nesting — Any  nest  made  roomy  and  hollowed  out 
so  that  the  eggs  can  neither  roll  out  nor  pile  up  will  be 
serviceable.  The  materials  are  not  important  so  long  as 
they  are  not  harsh  or  disagreeable.  Put  in  the  bottom 
a  little  earth,  or  many  prefer  the  nest  upon  the  ground 
if  it  be  in  a  dry  place.  Do  not  make  the  nest  in  a  box 
where  the  hen  does  not  have  sufficient  room  to  turn 
around  without  forcing  her  to  be  awkward  thus  en- 
dangering the  eggs.  Old  barrels  make  fairly  good  nests. 
When  the  nest  is  complete  sprinkle  into  it  a  little  sul- 
phur, powdered  tobacco,  or  insect  powder.  Lice  and 
chicks  are  difficult  to  brood  together. 

Place — The  place  is  not  so  important  if  it  be  dry 
and  not  subject  to  draughts.  It  should  be  apart  from 
other  poultr}'~Tn — utliei — broody  hens.  IT  should  be 
free   from  rats  and  similar  prowlers.     If  several  nests 


54  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

are  desired  in  one  room  or  building,  each  hen  should  be 
fastened  into  her  own  nest,  or  careful  watchfulness 
given,  to  see  that  no  eggs  are  left  uncovered  because 
of  two  hens  seeking  one  nest. 

Setting  the  Hen — Having  chosen  a  hen  dust  her  well 
with  insect  powder  and  remove  her  at  night  to  her 
new  quarters.  She  will  rarely  give  any  trouble  about 
sitting  where  she  is  placed.  If  she  is  not  inclined  to 
be  satisfied,  shut  her  in  for  a  few  hours  until  she  set- 
tles down  to  business.  Give  her  an  egg  and  if  she  is 
alone  let  her  out  to  feed  and  water  twice  a  day.  If 
warm  arrange  water  in  her  nest  to  save  bowel  trouble 
from  overdrinking.  If  she  does  not  show  a  tendency 
to  return  to  her  nest,  gently  catch  her  and  replace  her 
on  the  nest  or  its  edge  and  allow  her  to  settle.  If  after 
two  days  she  still  gives  trouble,  discard  her  as  she  will 
doubtless  be  easily  disturbed  and  be  of  little  value  as 
a  sitter.  If  she  is  entirely  satisfactory  you  may  now  give 
her  the  eggs  you  desire  her  to  hatch.  Do  not  give  too 
many  eggs.     Fewer  will  give  better  results. 

Feeding — Place  good  grain,  grit,  green  food  and  water 
where  the  hen  can  supply  herself  with  what  her  nature 
demands.  If  she  cannot  be  trusted  to  leave  her  nest 
at  will,  give  her  attention  at  least  twice  a  day  in  warm 
weather  and  see  that  she  has  water  within  reach  of  her 
nest. 

General  Care — Test  out  the  eggs  at  the  same  periods 
as  incubator  eggs  are  tested  and,  unless  it  is  in  a  very  dry 
climate  or  a  dry  season,  do  not  supply  moisture.  If  in  a 
dry  place  sprinkle  the  material  under  the  eggs  with 
warm  water  twice  during  the  last  week  just  as  the  hen 
goes  back  to  her  nest.  The  time  is  important  so  that 
evaporation  will  not  cool  the  eggs  unduly.  Dust  the 
hen   again    well   about   three   days   before   time    for   her 


Incudation  55 

to  hatch  her  brood.  Do  not  let  any  opinion  interfere 
with  the  dusting  of  the  hen  with  lice  powder  at  the  be- 
ginning and  end  of  the  hatch. 

Taking  off  the  Hatch — Prepare  a  warm  dry  coop  in 
a  place  free  from  draughts  and  vermin.  Gently  remove 
the  hen  and  her  brood  after  you  are  sure  the  incubation 
is  complete.  Place  them  into  the  coop  prepared  and 
give  them  plenty  of  fresh  water  but  no  food  for  at 
least  two  days.  See  that  they  cannot  wander  away 
from  the  coop  and  do  not  fail  to  shut  them  away  from 
all  night  intruders. 

Artificial  Incubation. 

The  Machine — In  buying  an  incubator  do  not  fail  to 
get  the  best,  as  they  are  far  the  cheapest,  regardless 
of  the  relative  price  one  pays.  Pay  no  attention  to  the 
fairy  tales  in  the  advertising  but  go  over  the  various 
makes,  point  by  point,  and  advise  with  others  using  the 
different  machines.  What  follows  may  assist  in  de- 
ciding. No  machine  has  brains.  Do  not  expect  a  ma- 
chine to  be  satisfactory  unless  you  follow  explicitly 
the  manufacturer's  directions  in  unpacking,  setting  up 
and  operating.  Different  makes  of  machines  cannot 
be  operated  in  the  same  manner.  Their  circulatory  sys- 
tems may  be  vastly  different.  The  details  of  some  ma- 
chines are  valuable  time  and  labor  savers.  While  gen- 
eral principles  of  all  machines  are  alike  yet  the  appli- 
cation of  principles  vary. 

No  success  can  come  to  an  operator  whose  habits  and 
attention  are  irregular  and  whose  memory  is  uncertain. 
Do  not  abuse  a  machine  and  blame  the  maker.  A  poor 
machine  will  hatch  well  the  first  season  and  under  good 
conditions,  a  good  machine  will  hatch  well  for  many 
seasons  and  under  more  unsettled  conditions.     Detailed 


56  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

instructions  are  with  every  machine  and  are  usually  very 
plain  and  simple.  Do  not  purchase  too  small  a  machine, 
as  the  cost  of  a  larger  one  is  but  little  more,  the  cost 
of  operating  it  is  not  much  higher  if  any,  and  it  will 
hatch  few  or  many  eggs.  It  is  very  hard  to  dispose 
of  a  small  machine  in  the  event  one  wishes  to  replace  it 
by  a  larger  one.  Again  do  not  show  each  friend  how  the 
machine  works,  if  to  do  so  requires  touching  it.  The 
machine  should  be  level  to  insure  an  evenness  of  tem- 
perature in  the  egg  chamber.  If  you  have  no  spirit 
level  use  a  pan  of  water,  which  for  the  purpose  will  do 
very  well. 

The  Main  Objects  to  Be  Attained — In  all  artificial 
incubation,  as  in  the  natural,  certain  objects  must  be  kept 
in  mind  for  success  as  follows : 

1.  To  keep  a  uniform  temperature  of  the  eggs  at 
the  required  degrees. 

2.  To  furnish  pure  air  in  a  correct  current. 

3.  To  control  evaporation. 

4.  To  prevent  the  egg  contents  from  remaining  in 
one  position. 

The  Essentials  of  a  Machine — There  are  many  essen- 
tial parts  to  a  machine  as  well  as  many  minor  parts 
which  are  important  because  they  tend  to  save  or  hin- 
der by  the  handiness  of  their  construction.  In  obtain- 
ing an  incubator  these  minor  matters  should  receive  some 
consideration. 

The  case  or  body  should  be  made  of  good  substan- 
tial material,  well  joined  and  well  insulated  so  that 
it  will  heat  evenly  and  easily  when  once  warmed  through. 
Its  shape  is  unimportant.  The  egg  chamber  and  nurs- 
ery chamber  should  be  roomy. 

The  regulating  device  is  the  brain  of  the  machine 
and  is  usually  its  weakest  point  in  that  it  will  operate 


Incubation  57 

well  under  normal  conditions  but  fails  under  certain 
variations.  For  example  one  machine  has  the  smoke 
flue  passing  through  the  machine.  In  warm  weather 
the  heat  of  the  smoke  flue  plus  the  heat  generated  by 
the  chicks  at  certain  stages  is  more  than  the  machine 
requires,  hence  the  regulator  is  valueless  after  a  certain 
temperature  is  reached,  and  without  special  attention  loss 
would  result.  Not  all  makes  of  machines  with  smoke 
flues  passing  through  the  machines  are  thus,  yet  caution 
is  needed  to  choose  the  better  ones.  A  regulator  is  really 
made  up  of  several  parts  including  the  thermometer 
which  enables  the  operator  to  adjust  the  device.  The 
thermostat,  the  connection  and  the  damper  arm  are  other 
parts. 

The  thermometer  should  be  a  good  one  and  well 
tested.  Sometimes  it  may  have  been  handled  roughly 
in  transportation  and  the  mercury  separated,  in  which 
case  it  is  easily  joined  by  inverting  the  thermometer  and 
starting  the  mercury  downward  into  the  top  end  un- 
til it  fills  the  stem.  Then  by  a  downward  swinging 
motion  the  main  column  will  be  driven  against  the  sep- 
arate parts  and  united  thereto.  If  not  a  complete  suc- 
cess repeat  the  operation.  The  location  of  the  ther- 
mometer varies  in  different  machines.  It  may  hang 
above,  lay  on  or  between  the  eggs  in  the  egg  chamber. 

The  connecting  rod  and  arm  with  a  damper  or  other 
controlling  device,  are  simple  in  principle,  being  governed 
by  a  thermostat  of  some  kind.  Thermostats  differ  wide- 
ly in  kind  and  composition.  The  principle  of  expansion 
by  heat  pervades  them  all  and  its  mechanical  effect  oti 
the  connection  and  damper  arm  lessens  or  increases 
the  heat  units  held  for  use.  Some  are  round,  concave, 
flat  or  corrugated  disks  of  metal  joined  and  sealed  at 
the  outer  edges  and  coetaining  a  liquid  which  is  very 


58  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

volatile  at  a  given  temperature.  One  side  of  the  disk 
is  stationary  and  the  other  moves  the  rod  or  connection 
of  the  damper  arm  or  other  device  used  for  the  same 
purpose.  The  expansion  of  the  liquid  within  the  disk 
located  in  the  egg-  chamber,  governs  the  regulator's  ac- 
tion. Other  thermostats  are  made  of  metal  only,  having 
the  action  of  a  spring  when  expanded  by  heat.  Many  de- 
vices are  used.  The  greater  the  expanding  power  of 
the  thermostat  when  attached  to  a  proper  regulator 
mechanism,  the  more  perfectly  under  control  is  the  tem- 
perature of  the  egg  chamber.  Therefore  it  is  clearly 
important  to  look  carefully  to  this  device  for  proper  re- 
sults.    It  is  the  safety  valve  of  the  incubator. 

The  heating  parts  of  an  incubator  are  present  to  hold 
the  temperature  of  the  egg  chamber  at  an  even  and 
desired  degree  and  in  an  effective  manner.  This  is  ac- 
complished in  various  ways  and  by  various  devices.  Dif- 
fusion and  radiation  both  contend  for  recognition  with 
the  former  in  the  majority.  Hot  air,  hot  water,  elec- 
tric and  gas  machines  are  on  the  market.  The  first  two 
named  are  the  most  frequently  found  and  heat  the  air 
or  water  above  the  flame,  passing  the  heated  current 
into  the  body  of  the  machine  in  a  manner  to  warm  the 
egg  and  nursery  chambers.  Some  machines  have  single 
pipes,  some  double  pipes,  some  flat  pan-like  heating  sur- 
faces as  well  as  other  variations  of  the  same  principle. 
Some  pass  a  warm  current  of  fresh  air  into  the  egg  cham- 
ber and  nursery  while  others  simply  radiate  heat  and  have 
other  means  to  supply  air  to  those  chambers.  All  have 
some  form  of  heater  about  the  flame,  assuming  many  forms 
and  many  different  positions  upon  the  machine.  The  main 
consideration  is  handiness  of  access  to  fill  and  trim 
the  lamp.  The  smoke  flues  of  some  machines  pass  through 
the  body  of   the   machines,   while   in    some   makes   the 


Incubation  59 

smoke  never  enters  the  machine  at  any  point.  The  lat- 
ter plan  makes  the  regulation  a  little  more  certain  es- 
pecially in  warm  weather.  The  regulator  on  all  ma- 
chines allows  the  excess  heat  to  pass  away  from  the  ma- 
chine except  on  those  machines  where  the  regulator 
controls  the  amount  of  heat  generated.  Practically  all 
machines  grant  the  principle  of  overhead  heating  as 
best. 

The  advocates  of  hot  air  machines  claim  that  the  warm 
fresh  air  diffused  over  the  eggs  at  a  right  current,  is 
the  best  method  since  it  both  supplies  the  necessary 
amount  of  oxygen  to  the  germ  life  and  also  carries 
away  by  right  ventilation  the  gases  thrown  off  by  the 
developing  germ.  They  also  do  away  with  the  labor  of 
filling  a  water  pan  or  tank  as  well  as  any  danger  of 
a  leak.  The  hot  water  enthusiast  claims  a  greater  econ- 
emy  of  fuel,  better  circulation,  and  hence  more  even 
heat  as  well  as  less  danger  of  loss  since  the  water  would 
hold  the  heat  for  a  longer  period  in  case  of  accident 
or  neglect.  Both  methods  are  obtaining  correct  results 
but  the  majority  of  operators  seem  inclined  to  the  hot 
air  machines. 

In  a  heating  lamp  there  is  but  one  object  and  that  is 
heat.  Light  is  of  no  importance.  The  fuel  may  be 
anything  which  forms  a  gas  and  is  made  from  many  sub- 
stances, the  most  common  of  which  is  coal  oil.  Where 
natural  or  artificial  gas  is  used  a  special  burner  is  re- 
quired and  will  be  furnished  by  the  manufacturer. 
Where  kerosene  is  used  the  lamp  consists  of  a  bowl 
or  fount,  a  flue  or  chimney  and  a  burner.  The  bowl 
need  be  no  particular  shape  but  should  be  large  enough 
to  necessitate  filling  but  once  every  day  and  should  con- 
tain an  inner  division  open  at  the  bottom  to  reduce  the 
danger  of  spilling  by  careless  handling.     The  material 


60  Science  and  Akt  of  Tuultky  Culture 

may  be  glass  or  metal.  The  latter  is  less  liable  to  break, 
but  for  convenience  in  filling-  should  contain  an  extra 
large  filling  cap  or  a  device,  to  show  the  amount  of  oil 
in  the  bowl  or  fount.  A  small  air  hole  should  exist  in 
every  filling  cap  for  safety. 

The  chimney  or  flue  is  more  safe  when  made  of  metal 
than  of  glass.  Glass  might  break  at  a  time  when  no 
attendant  was  present  and  cause  much  loss  of  time  and 
property.  A  metal  flue  should  have  a  mica  window  to 
allow  the  attendant  to  notice  the  height  of  the  flame. 
The  flue  should  be  of  the  size  and  shape  to  allow  a  proper 
draught  of  air  to  supply  sufficient  oxygen  to  the  flame. 
If  the  flue  should  begin  to  accumulate  soot  and  grease 
clean  it  thoroughly  to  avoid  danger  of  fire.  Some  heat- 
ers contain  the  chimney  or  flue. 

The  oil  burner  is  the  important  element  in  a  lamp  and 
the  greatest  source  of  danger  in  a  careless  operator's 
hands.  The  story  is  ever  old  of  lamp  explosions  and  their 
results.  The  wick  may  be  of  various  substances  but  no 
invention  has  ever  displaced  the  cotton  wick.  Clean  oil, 
a  clean  wick,  and  a  clean  wick-tube  are  essential.  Do 
not  burn  a  wick  until  it  is  short.  Burners  are  usually 
of  brass  and  the  wick-tube  should  have  a  ventilating 
tube.  The  perforated  base  should  be  kept  clean  and  open 
to  the  passage  of  air.  The  size  of  the  burner  should 
be  governed  by  the  heat  required  but  should  be  of 
sufficient  capacity  to  give  the  required  heat  without  the 
necessity  of  using  a  high  flame  with  its  consequent  dan- 
ger. The  oil  should  be  of  the  best  with  as  little  odor 
escaping  as  possible  while  burning.  The  flame  is  fed 
by  a  hydro-carbon  gas  formed  at  the  base  of  the  flame 
and  being  a  miniature  gas  plant  the  generation  should 
be  under  perfect  control.  The  wick-tube  becoming  hot 
and  forming  an  excess  of  gas  is  the  real  danger  and  to 


Inculjation  61 

avoid  this  many  devices  are  used  to  keep  it  normal. 
The  cool  air  passing  to  the  flame  through  the  perfor- 
ations about  the  tube,  metal  tongues  to  dissipate  the 
heat,  water  jackets  about  the  wick-tube  and  many  other 
methods  are  used  to  avoid  this  danger. 

The  methods  of  regulating  the  heat  supply  also  vary. 
Some  allow  the  excess  heat  to  escape  into  the  outer 
air  by  means  of  an  automatic  damper,  while  others  reg- 
ulate the  height  or  size  of  the  flame  by  a  mechanical  de- 
vice and  by  the  old-fashioned  way  of  trimming  the 
wick  to  a  point.    Some  combine  two  methods. 

Lamp  boxes  are  of  many  kinds  and  in  many  cases 
economize  oil.  save  accident,  allow  the  lamp  to  be  out 
of  the  way  and  make  for  a  more  uniform  heat  because 
the  lamp  is  not  exposed  to  outside  atmospheric  changes. 
The  position  and  holding  device  of  the  lamp  relative  to 
the  ease  of  attending  it,  is  a  very  important  factor  when 
one  must  use  it  for  any  length  of  time. 

Another  important  feature  of  every  incubator  is  the 
internal  arrangement.  Is  the  thermometer  where  it  can 
be  easily  read?  Is  there  a  roomy  egg  chamber?  Is  the 
nursery  tray  covered  with  cloth  so  the  chicks  will  not 
slip  upon  it?  Is  there  ample  space  between  the  egg  tray 
when  pushed  back  for  the  chicks  to  drop  into  the  nurs- 
ery and  to  pass  and  repass  next  to  the  door  without 
crowding  and  trampling  each  other?  Is  the  circulatory 
system  good?  Are  the  trays  and  other  parts  handy  to 
remove  for  necessary  purposes?  Are  the  trays  sub- 
stantial and  well  adapted  for  ease  of  egg  turning?  Is 
the  heating  device  easily  removed  for  cleaning  in  case 
of  accidental  smoking?  Alany  matters  have  been  omit- 
ted or  lightly  touched  upon  which  are  really  important 
but  enough  has  been  suggested  to  show  the  importance 
of  choosing  a  good  machine  regardless  of  price. 


62  Science  and  Art  of  Poultky  Culture 

Location  of  Machine — The  ideal  place  to  operate  an 
incubator  is  where  pure,  fresh  air  is  easily  introduced 
without  drafts ;  where  some  sunlight  can  enter,  yet 
where  sudden  outside  temperatures  cannot  vary  a  uni- 
form degree  of  the  incubator  room.  Gases  and  burned- 
out  air  are  injurious  for  egg  and  beast  alike.  A  half 
cellar  is  a  good  place  if  ventilation  is  provided.  A 
cellar,  an  inner  room,  a  cave  or  other  place  can  be  used 
if  they  approach  the  requirements.  Fluctuations  of  tem- 
perature and  bad  air  are  the  most  serious  evils  to  be 
overcome.  If  placed  in  an  ordinary  cellar  the  fire  in- 
surance policy  should  be  examined  and  a  permit  be 
obtained  if  not  already  included  in  the  policy.  Ordinary 
tremblings  or  jars  if  not  too  sudden  or  severe  have  not 
proved  injurious  as  successful  incubation  has  been  done 
adjoining  a  railway  track  where  heavy  traffic  passed. 
If  choice  were  involved  a  quieter  place  would  be  pre- 
ferred. Heavy  electrical  storms  have  been  thought  to  in- 
jure hatches  at  certain  delicate  stages  of  development. 
Avoid  hitting  or  otherwise  jarring  the  egg  trays  or 
machine  as  the  germ  at  certain  stages  of  development 
is  very  sensitive.  Therefore  a  roomy  place  is  desirable. 
A  location  would  also  be  better  if  arranged  so  that  the 
temperature  of  the  room  could  be  kept  in  the  vicinity 
of  70  degrees. 

Starting  the  Machine — If  the  machine  is  new,  is  set 
up  and  in  place,  cleaning  and  disinfecting  are  not 
necessary.  If  not  then  carefully  dust  and  wash  the  en- 
tire interior  until  it  is  sweet  and  clean.  Provide  new 
burlap  parts  if  necessary.  Next  paint  the  interior  of  the 
machine  with  a  ten  per  cent  solution  of  zenoleum  or  cre- 
olin.  If  they  are  not  obtainable  use  a  wash  of  mer- 
curic chloride.  Directions  for  the  use  of  the  latter  will 
be  given  by  the  druggist  as  the  size  and  strength  of 


Incubation  63 

the  tablets  or  powder  will  determine  the  quantity  to 
use.  If  it  be  a  hot  water  machine  fill  the  water  pan  with 
reasonably  hot  water.  The  use  of  hot  water  enables 
the  attendant  to  fill  it  without  danger  of  its  expanding 
and  hence  spilling  and  also  allows  the  machine  to 
warm  up  more  quickly.  Next  close  up  the  doors  and 
inspect  the  heating  appliances  and  the  regulator.  See 
that  the  thermometer  is  still  correct  by  comparing  it 
with  a  second  thermometer  in  tepid  or  lukewarm  water. 
Be  careful  about  water  being  too  warm  or  both  instru- 
ments will  be  broken.  Place  one  in  its  position  in  the 
egg  chamber  and  the  machine  is  ready  for  the  lamp 
which  should  have  a  new  wick  and  every  part  clean. 
Operate  the  flame  moderately  and  never  leave  a  machine 
until  you  are  satisfied  the  flame  is  in  full  combustion. 
Often  upon  filling  the  lamp  the  full  blaze  does  not  be- 
gin for  several  moments  after  it  is  lighted,  owing  to  the 
time  required  for  the  oil  to  climb  the  wick.  If  it  is  cold 
weather  the  machine  may  take  more  than  one  day  to 
warm  up.  When  it  reaches  the  desired  temperature  ad- 
just your  regulator  and  wait  a  day  to  see  if  everything 
is  running  well  and  the  temperature  remains  steady. 
The  eggs  may  now  be  placed  in  the  trays.  Do  not  try  to 
place  them  in  rows  as  more  will  go  in  when  placed 
promiscuously.  Close  up  your  machine  and  do  not  touch 
the  regulator  when  you  find  the  temperature  dropping. 
It  will  recover  when  the  eggs  get  warmed  through. 
If  anything  herein  conflicts  with  the  instructions  given 
with  the  machine  then  follow  the  instructions  explicitly. 
If  desired  pedigree  trays  can  be  employed  to  keep  apart 
all  chicks  until  they  can  be  marked. 

Care  of  the  Lamp — ^Each  day  the  operator  should 
note  that  the  burner  is  clean  and  the  wick  well  trimmed 
at  filling  time.     Trim  the  wick,   removing  the   charred 


64  SciEXcii  AND  Art  uf  I'uultkv  Culture 

portion  by  passing  a  match  stem  or  back  of  a  knife  over 
the  wick.  Then  give  just  a  Httle  attention  to  the  corners 
that  they  be  rounded  or  at  least  free  from  charred  mat- 
ter. See  that  no  crustations  accumulate  on  the  sides  of 
the  wick-tube.  Always  begin  with  a  moderate  flame 
and  before  leaving,  adjust  it  to  avoid  smoking  or  over- 
heating. Use  only  the  best  oil  as  poor  oil  makes  a  bad 
odor.  Before  taking  a  lamp  from  a  machine  note  the 
height  of  the  flame  and  when  replacing  it  attempt  to 
turn  the  flame  to  the  same  height  as  before.  If  the 
pipes  should  become  smoky  clean  them  thoroughly  at 
once.  Never  leave  a  lamp  in  a  machine  while  not  light- 
ed as  the  oil  will  draw  up  and  on  the  metal  and  cause 
it  to  smoke  and  smell  when  next  used. 

Temperature — To  maintain  an  even  and  correct  tem- 
perature requires  careful  and  watchful  attention.  Note 
the  paragraph  on  thermometers  and  see  that  no  errors 
occur.  If  you  are  using  a  hanging  or  suspended  regis- 
ter a  different  rule  will  be  followed  than  when  a  con- 
tact register  is  used.  In  the  latter  be  certain  to  keep 
the  bulb  upon  a  live  germ.  In  the  former  be  sure  to  place 
it  wiiere  the  directions  indicate.  Violent  fluctuations 
or  prolonged  changes  of  temperature  are  usually  very 
injurious  especially  at  the  earlier  part  of  incubation. 
Authorities  differ  as  to  the  exact  degree  yet  are  in  ac- 
cord within  certain  limits.  Beginning  the  hatch  at  from 
lOr  to  1023^2°  seems  to  be  the  best  for  the  first  week, 
103°  for  the  second  week  and  until  pipping  time  for  the 
third  week.  If  a  contact  bulb  is  used  the  temperature 
should  be  3^°  lower.  During  the  end  of  the  second  week 
the  temperature  will  rise,  owing  to  the  radiated  animal 
heat  from  the  embryos.  Readjust  the  regulator  and 
again  at  hatching  time,  note  and  meet  the  conditions 
arising  from  the  heat  generated  at  pipping  time  and  also 


Incucation  65 

the  loss  of  heat  caused  by  rapid  evaporation  when  many 
chicks  are  drying  off  at  the  same  time.  Do  not  be 
alarmed  if  the  temperature  runs  up  to  105°  during  the 
exclusion  period.  No  harm  will  result  and  many  claim 
that  it  is  better.  Hatches  have  been  taken  off  where 
the  chicks  before,  and  at  the  time  of  exclusion,  were  sub- 
ject to  a  temperature  of  112°.  Certain  it  is  that  such 
treatment  resulted  in  harm  to  the  vitality  of  the  chicks. 
Long  drawn  out  and  uneven  hatches  would  indicate  un- 
even temperatures  during"  incubation.  When  incubating 
eggs  of  the  Mediterranean  breeds  or  other  lighter  va- 
rieties, a  degree  lower  is  often  used  with  good  results. 
If  the  chicks  pant  at  the  time  of  exclusion  do  not  be 
alarmed,  but  they  may  need  better  ventilation  or  a  little 
less  heat  if  the  temperature  is  running  high.  Unless 
one  knows  his  business  at  this  point  it  is  better  to  fol- 
low the  incubator  instructions  and  not  experiment.  A 
high  temperature  at  the  beginning  of  a  hatch  is  more  in- 
jurious since"  the  tissues  are  more  tender  at  that  pe- 
riod. Also  in  incubating  duck  eg^s  the  temperature 
for  the  last  three  weeks  should  range  Yi"  lower  than  that 
of  hens'  eggs  for  the  second  and  third  weeks. 

Turning  the  Eggs — Operators  vary  in  methods  of 
turning  eggs  during  incubation,  and  some  even  go  so  far 
as  to  deny  the  necessity  of  such  turning,  but  they  are 
in  the  small  minority.  Avoid  sudden  or  quick,  jerky  mo- 
tions in  handling  eggs.  Begin  turning  the  eggs  about  the 
third  day  and  cease  turning  the  evening  of  the  eighteenth 
day  for  hens'  eggs,  or  if  duck  eggs  omit  turning  after  the 
twenty-fourth  day.  Never  touch  an  egg  with  soiled  hands 
nor  after  filling  the  lamps  unless  soap  and  water  have  been 
liberally  used.  Some  turn  the  eggs  once  a  day  but  the 
majority  of  operators  turn  them  twice  a  day  as  nearly 
twelve  hours  apart  as  possible.    Be  regular  in  this  work. 


66 


Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


It  is  not  necessary  to  turn  the  eggs  over  just  half  way 
in  fact  it  is  much  better  that  they  be  turned  differently 
each  time.  See  that  no  eggs  are  left  standing  on  end 
and  do  not  try  to  keep  the  eggs  in  rows  in  the  tray. 
Many  patent  devices  are  used  to  turn  eggs,  but  none  are 
as  satisfactory  as  the  hand  method,  especially  with  a 
slightly  sloping  tray.  This  is  accomplished  by  removing 
to  the  ends  the  two  middle  rows  of  eggs  next  to  the 


SINGLE  COMB   RHODE   ISLAND  RED. 
Courtesy   of  Lester   Tompkins. 


partition  and  rolling  the  remaining  eggs  down  toward 
the  tray  center  with  the  flat  of  the  hand.  Many  believe 
that  the  turning  should  be  done  just  at  the  end  of  the 
cooling  period  and  just  before  the  trays  are  replaced. 
This  method  allows  the  contraction  to  take  place  first 
after  which  comes  the  movement  of  the  embryo.  In 
the  double  tray  machines  turn  the  trays  end  for  end  at 
night  and  from  side  to  side  in  the  morning  after  the  first 


Incubation  67 

day.  This  evens  up  the  temperature  of  the  eggs  regard- 
less of  where  they  were  placed  originally.  In  single 
tray  machines  end  for  end  once  a  day  is  sufficient.  Many 
operators  in  order  to  assist  their  memory  write  the  word 
"  night  "  on  one  end  of  each  tray  and  thus  see  that  the 
turning  brings  this  word  outward  each  evening.  When 
replacing  the  eggs  do  not  touch  the  regulator  as  the 
heat  will  soon  bring  the  temperature  to  normal  again. 

Cooling  the  Eggs — The  importance  of  cooling  has  been 
largely  underestimated  in  artificial  incubation.  A  few 
manufacturers  are  emphasizing  the  importance  of  this 
fact.  The  relation  of  cooling  to  evaporation  of  moisture 
is  not  yet  clearly  defined  but  is  an  interesting  study. 
The  aims  and  amount  of  cooling  are  difficult  to  clearly 
explain  and  much  experimenting  along  this  line  is  in 
progress.  Certain  it  is  that  during  the  period  of  in- 
cubation a  definite  amount  of  heat  is  required  to  bring 
out  a  perfect  or  ripened  chick,  and  that  heat  should  be 
spread  over  the  whole  of  the  natural  period  as  well 
as  be  balanced  by  a  right  amount  of  cooling.  Proper 
cooling  lends  vitality  to  the  embryo  and  by  a  gradual 
process  accustoms  the  developing  chick  to  the  new 
world  it  is  about  to  enter.  The  question  of  ventilation 
and  oxygen  supply  enters  here  to  a  slight  extent  but 
under  right  conditions  is  of  little  consequence. 

The  length  of  time  cooling  should  take  can  be  fixed 
by  no  exact  rule.  Experience  will  tell  an  operator  much 
which  cannot  be  stated.  The  "  feel  "  tells  its  own  story 
and  takes  into  consideration  the  temperature  of  the 
room,  the  stage  of  incubation  and  the  previous  tern- 
perature  of  the  incubator.  The  best  one  can  do  is  to 
give  approximate  temperatures  and  let  judgment  act 
as  a  supplement. 


68  SciEXcii:  Axi)  Art  of  I'ol-ltrv  Culture 

Daiuv  Cooling  Table. 


Room 

Operating 

Tool  i  I 

IS   Time 

Second    Week 
and    Thereaftei 

Temperature 

Temperature 

First    Week 

30  to  40 

103  Degrees 

3  to    5  min. 

5  to  10  min. 

40  to  50 

103  Degrees 

5  to  10  min. 

10  to  15  min. 

50  to  60 

lOZy.  Degrees 

10  to  15  min. 

15  to  20  min. 

60  to  70 

102!/>  Degrees 

15  to  20  min. 

20  to  25  min. 

70  and  above 

102  Degrees 

20  to  25  min. 

25  to  60  min. 

The  above  \vill  be  the  latitude  usually  given,  but  one 
must  again  follow  instructions,  as  some  machines  have 
circulatory  systems  which  do  not  require  so  much  cooling 
of  the  eggs  as  do  others.  When  using  the  suspended 
thermometer  the  above  rule  holds,  while  with  a  contact 
thermometer  one  degree  lower  within  the  machine  is 
the  rule.  Unless  the  incubator  cellar  or  room  is  free 
from  draughts  it  is  better  to  cool  by  simply  leaving  the 
incubator  door  open.  The  time  spent  in  turning  may 
be  sufficient  for  the  first  few  days  and  should  be  de- 
termined so  that  overcooling  may  not  result.  In  test 
days  do  not  cool.  Begin  to  cool  upon  the  second  day  and 
discontinue  the  evening  of  the  eighteenth  day  except 
duck  eggs,  which  discontinue  upon  the  evening  of  the 
twenty- fourth  day. 

Testing  Out  Eggs — Xote  carefully  the  chapter  on 
"  Egg  Structure,  Formation,  and  Germ  Development." 
The  purpose  of  testing  out. eggs  is  to  save  infertile  ones 
for  commercial  gain,  make  more  room  for  fertile  eggs, 
discard  those  whose  germs  have  died,  and  more  than  all 
to  better  understand  the  many  problems  leading  to 
stronger  egg  germs  and  better  incubation.  The  lessons 
of  testing  and  the  deductions  therefrom  cannot  be  satis- 
factorily given  in  the  form  of  photographs  or  cuts.  Real 
experience  in   the   testing  room   is  the  surest  and  most 


IXCUBATIOX  69 

rapid  method  of  education  in  egg  testing.  Do  not  be 
afraid  of  using  a  few  dozen  eggs  in  this  work. 

The  best  time  to  test  out  eggs  is  in  the  late  evening, 
thus  doing  away  with  the  necessity  of  a  special  dark 
room.  A  tester  is  furnished  with  every  machine  and 
if  not  any  tinsmith  can  make  one  from  cuts  shown  in 
every  catalogue  of  incubators.  For  daylight  or  night 
candling  a  pasteboard  rolled  into  the  form  of  a  horn  is 
sufficient.  Place  the  egg  into  the  small  end  and  hold 
up  to  the  sun  or  a  lamp.  In  handling  eggs  do  not  use 
quick,  violent  motions  as  they  injure  the  delicate  struc- 
ture of  the.  embryo.  Allow  no  draught  in  the  testing 
room. 

The  temperature  of  the  room  should  be  about  sev- 
enty degrees,  but  if  it  is  not  convenient  to  gain  this  tem- 
perature, test  out  at  each  cooling  period  until  the  test- 
ing is  completed.  Test  out  dark  shelled  eggs  about  the 
seventh  day,  light  ones  about  the  fourth  day  and  re- 
peat the  test  at  any  time  before  the  eighteenth  day. 
Beginners  should  test  more  often  and  mark  all  doubt- 
ful eggs  replacing  them  for  future  study.  Be  careful 
to  keep  a  contact  thermometer  upon  a  live  germ.  Duck 
eggs  can  be  tested  as  easily  as  the  egg  of  the  hen  and 
about  as  early. 

In  placing  an  incubated  egg  to  the  light  it  will  show 
perfectly  clear  if  infertile.  If  fertile  a  small  dark  spot 
will  appear  and  a  bulky  shadow  will  also  darken  the 
interior.  If  well  started  the  germ  will  have  spider- 
like threads  or  blood  lines  radiating  from  it.  If  not 
clearly  seen  turn  the  egg  slowly  or  reverse  ends.  Do 
not  keep  the  egg  held  to  the  heat  and  light  but  an  in- 
stant and  use  quiet  motions  in  handling  it.  If  a  weak 
germ  has  started  and  died  a  dark  red  circle  or  circu- 
lar streak  will  appear,  or  perhaps  a  black  spotted  ap- 


70  SciENci-:  AND  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

pearance  may  be  present  if  the  egg  is  decaying.  The 
second  test  should  show  a  dark,  well  filled  shell.  Many 
will  state  that  the  first  test  ought  to  show  the  air  cell 
to  be  about  the  size  of  a  quarter  of  a  dollar  and  at  the 
second  test  the  size  of  a  half-dollar.  Others  will  ad- 
vise that  the  air  cell  during  incubation  should  occupy 
from  one-third  to  one-fifth  of  the  shell's  space.  If  it 
varies  either  way  there  is  too  much  or  too  little  moisture. 
The  beginner  had  better  take  all  this  advice  but  not  use 
it,  as  there  is  no  set  rule  which  will  apply  to  all  kinds 
of  eggs  or  under  all  conditions.  In  dry  countries  and 
in  moist  climates  this  will  bear  study,  but  in  medium 
climates  it  is  of  much  less  consequence. 

Moisture  and  l^cntilation — The  questions  of  temper- 
ature, moisture,  ventilation  and  cooling  have  much  of 
inter-dependence.  Circulation  and  humidity  are  really 
but  ventilation  and  moisture  in  different  language. 
About  these  words  there  centers  much  of  unknown  in- 
terest to  the  student  of  poultry  science,  but  in  touching 
these  questions  herein  only  practical  and  elementary 
statements  will  be  made.  While  temperature  is  ex- 
tremely important,  so  also  is  moisture  and  ventilation. 
The  real  object  desired  is  to  obtain  proper  ventilation 
in  the  egg  chamber  without  an  excessive  current  of  air. 
Here  also  hinges  the  moisture  question  as  it  is  the  air 
current  or  circulation  which  robs  the  egg  of  its  mois- 
ture if  it  be  excessive.  Some  machines  have  special 
ventilators  or  air  passages  while  others  depend  on  pass- 
ing pure  air  through  the  machine.  Some  evaporation 
is  necessary,  so  the  real  problem  is  to  obtain  tempera- 
ture, circulation,  ventilation  and  evaporation  combined 
to  the  right  degree.  In  order  to  handle  this  problem 
in  any  intelligent  manner  one  must  consider  the  sea- 
son,  air    humidity,    make    of    machine,    room   tempera- 


Incubation  71 

ture,  room  ventilation,  and  dozens  of  other  minor  mat- 
ters which  have  a  bearing.  Impure  air  is  as  fatal  to  a 
strong  hatch  as  any  other  one  cause. 

A  query  arises  as  to  how  one  is  to  know  when  he  is 
handling  the  moisture  question  aright.  Given  pure  air 
by  diffusion  or  otherwise  in  the  egg  chamber  and  a  scale 
which  will  weigh  to  the  ounce,  the  evaporation  may  be 
governed  to  a  very  practical  degree  as  this  subject  is 
now  understood.  By  weighing  the  eggs  when  they  enter 
the  machine  upon  a  dry  tray  and  weighing  them  at  any 
later  period  the  actual  loss  is  readily  obtained.  If  too 
dry  moisture  could  be  added  or  the  circulation  checked. 
By  this  means  one  could  study  the  relative  space  oc- 
cupied by  the  air  cell  until  he  became  proficient  and 
could  judge  well  enough  for  all  practical  purposes  of 
the  real  condition  and  progress  of  the  germ  develop- 
ment.    Moisture  registers  are  now  available. 

The  evaporation  of  hen's  eggs  for  the  first  nineteen 
days  of  incubation  should  be  about  sixteen  per  cent  of 
the  total  weight  at  the  beginning  of  the  hatch.  Duck 
eggs  would  require  that  about  the  twenty-fifth  day. 
It  also  must  be  understood  that  evaporation  should  be 
slight  at  the  beginning  of  a  hatch  and  gradually  in- 
crease. ]\Iany  prefer  that  the  first  week  should  only 
have  three  per  cent  of  the  total  of  sixteen  and  then  in- 
crease to  about  the  fifteenth  day,  after  which  a  slight 
decrease  should  result  to  the  nineteenth  day.  Duck 
eggs  really  require  a  little  more  moisture  and  ventilation 
than  do  hens'  eggs,  yet  cooling  will  often  be  neglected 
for  moisture  to  the  detriment  of  the  hatch. 

The  presence  of  too  much  moisture  tends  to  not  al- 
low the  chick  or  duckling  enough  room  in  the  shell  to 
pip  easily  as  well  as  weakens  the  constitution  of  the 
bird.     Too   little  moisture   renders   them   unable   to  get 


72  SciKNCK  AM)  Art  of  PorLTRv  Cui/ruKR 

out  of  the  shell  after  pipping  in  part  and  if  excluded 
often  becomes  a  cripple.  In  supplying  moisture  many 
methods  are  used  other  than  lessening  the  air  current. 
Many  put  the  moisture  into  the  machines  while  others 
keep  water  in  or  sprinkle  the  room.  Except  in  dry  cli- 
mates a  properly  ventilated  machine  will  need  no  water 
within  it  and  rarely  needs  it  sitting  in  the  room,  although 
the  latter  method  can  do  no  harm  and  may  often  be 
of  some  real  service.  If  the  door  of  the  machine  shows 
a  sweaty  condition  during  exclusion  or  before  do  not 
let  it  trouble  one  as  it  will  often  appear  under  normal 
conditions.  Do  not  open  the  door  during  the  exclusion 
period,  as  more  invisible  damage  will  usually  result  than 
any  good  accomplished.  If  the  lairds  pant  they  may 
need  just  a  little  better  ventilation  or  the  temperature 
may  be  running  high.  A  machine  with  a  fair  sized 
nursery  chamber  is  most  desirable  as  the  oxygen  will 
be  used  up  less  rapidly. 

Hatching  Time — Cease  turning  and  cooling  the  even- 
ing of  the  eighteenth  day.  Push  back  the  ^^g  trays  to 
allow  ample  room  in  the  nursery  front.  Use  any  pedigree 
tray,  thermostat  guard  or  other  appliance  required 
and  do  not  again  open  the  incubator  door  until 
after  exclusion.  A  chick  is  not  worth  helping  out 
of  the  shell  when  the  good  of  the  entire  hatch  is 
considered.  Because  one  or  several  do  not  die  when 
the  door  is  opened  leads  many  to  believe  no  harm  comes 
of  such  act,  the  results  of  which  are  always  in  the  fu- 
ture. The  chicks  ought  to  begin  pipping  on  the  twenti- 
eth day  and  be  fully  excluded  upon  the  twenty-first 
day  if  all  has  been  well  before  and  during  incubation. 
Hold  the  temperature  steady  until  pipping  begins  when 
it  may  fluctuate  as  before  described.  If  the  chicks  are 
excluded  and  dry  and  seem  to  need  air  fasten  open  the 


Incubation  Th 

incubator  door  just  a  trifle  or  ventilate  more  freely. 
Allow  the  temperature  to  run  down  to  100°  and  if  the 
room  is  70°  or  above  quickly  take  the  chicks  out  of  the 
incubator,  place  them  into  a  lined  basket,  cover  them 
over  and  take  them  to  a  brooder  properly  prepared  for 
their  reception.  Some  prefer  to  leave  the  wee  birds  in 
the  incubator  for  two  days.  With  correct  care  it  is 
immaterial  when  they  are  transferred  if  they  are  all 
excluded  and  well  dried  ofif.  Do  not  neglect  to  clean  the 
machine  at  once  after  each  hatch  and  when  another 
hatch  is  to  be  put  on  begin  as  though  the  machine  were 
not  ready,  which  insures  better  results.  One  cannot  be 
too  particular  in  the  care  of  a  machine. 

AA'hat  Causes  the  De\eloping  Germ  to  Die  in 

THE    SHELLf 

This  question  is  constantly  being  asked  and  following 
are  given  some  of  the  causes  in  brief  form : 
Parent  stock  weak  reproducers  by  inheritance. 
Parent  stock  imature  or  diseased. 
Parent   stock   ill-fed,   ill-bred,    or   ill-housed. 
Eggs  saved  too  long. 

Eggs  kept  in   wrong  temperature  before   incubation. 
Eggs  chilled  before  collecting. 
Eggs  saved  out  of  natural  season. 
Forced  feeding  for  eggs. 
Careless  choosing  of  eggs. 
Handling  eggs  with   oily  hands. 
Impure  air  during  incubation. 
Moisture   improperly   governed. 
Heat  improperly  supplied. 
Improper  cooling. 
Drafts    present    at    turning,    testing   or    cooling   time. 


Chapter  VII. 
BROODING. 

The  subject  of  brooding  is  of  equal  importance  with 
that  of  incubation.  It  is  an  old  saying  that  "  a  chicken 
well  hatched  is  half  brooded." 

Brooding  is  a  term  used  to  indicate  the  developing  of 
the  young  of  fowls  from  their  incubation  to  their  matur- 
ity. It  is  a  comprehensive  term  and  includes  every  environ- 
ment which  makes  for  better  or  for  worse  in  the  younger 
life  of  a  fowl.  In  treating  this  subject  the  reader's  knowl- 
edge of  brooder  houses  will  be  assumed  as  it  properly 
comes  under  poultry  house  construction.  That  success- 
ful brooding  is  confined  to  a  few  principles  carefully 
applied  does  not  seem  to  lessen  the  unnecessary  loss  so 
prevalent  in  the  poultry  business,  although  a  gratifying 
tendency  toward  better  results  is  in  evidence  throughout 
the  entire  country. 

Natural  and  Artificial  Brooding — Brooding  may 
properly  be  divided  into  natural  and  artificial  brooding ; 
the  former  by  the  female  fowl,  tlie  latter  by  many  meth- 
ods which  really  are  one  with  the  former  in  principle 
and  practice.  In  choosing  which  method  is  the  better 
one  must  consider  each  individual  case  since  the  number 
of  young  to  be  reared,  the  experience  of  the  operator, 
the  room  available,  the  equipment  obtainable,  the  ques- 
tion of  labor  assistance,  and  many  other  problems  are  to 
be  weighed  and  considered  carefully.  Where  but  few  are 
to  be  reared  it  may  be  more  economical  to  brood  by  the 
74 


76  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

natural  method.  The  main  claim  for  the  natural  mother 
is  in  the  care  and  teaching  she  gives  her  young  at  the 
approach  of  a  storm  or  other  danger,  the  hovering  when 
the  young  express  a  desire  for  warmth  and  the  teaching 
of  the  proper  food  her  young  should  eat.  The  artificial  ) 
brooding  advocates  follow  with  the  argument  that  the 
brooder  is  always  ready  and  willing  to  hover,  does  not 
drag  the  young  in  the  dew  and  rain,  lessens  the  danger 
of  lice  and  mites,  gives  the  young  its  choice  of  degrees 
of  heat,  makes  the  young  more  self  reliant  and  domesti- 
cated and  materially  lessens  the  care  expense  when  any 
numbers  are  considered. 

Mortality  in  the  Brooding  Period  and  Causes — The 
loss  of  young  stock  during  the  brooding  period  should 
not  exceed  over  five  per  cent  of  the  total  hatch  under 
normal  conditions.  By  normal  condition  is  meant  the 
exercise  of  knowledge  in  a  careful  and  practical  way. 
The  science  and  the  art  of  brooding  should  be  combined 
to  a  reasonable  extent  and  good  results  are  bound  to 
come. 

In  showing  some  of  the  causes  of  chick  mortality  we 
will  divide  them  into  two  main  classes,  which  relative  to 
brooding  will  be  designated  as  primary  and  secondary 
causes.  The  former  are  controllable  before  brooding, 
the  latter  during  brooding.  The  one  is  beyond  the  brood- 
ing operator,  the  other  entirely  within  his  control.  The 
loss  which  can  be  blamed  to  the  one  or  the  other  cause 
is  not  always  easy  of  recognition.  No  brooding  can 
make  a  success  of  a  chick  not  well  incubated. 

Primary  Causes — 

Unsound  parentage  from  breeding  or  age. 
Unsound  parentage   from   care  and   feeding. 
Eggs   poorly   selected  and  poorly  kept. 
Improper  incubation   for  any  reason. 


Brooding  17 

Secondary  Causes — 

Enemies   like  hawks,   crows,   rats,   foxes,   weasels,   etc. 

Too  much  heat  or   cold  and   draughts. 

Ragged  brooder   curtains  and   carelessness   in   handling. 

Stealing,  sudden  storms,  wet  grass,   etc. 

Open  holes,  open  water  barrels,   watering  receptacles,  etc. 

Overcrowding  and   consequent   trampling. 

Lack  of  fresh  air  and  pure  drinking  water. 

^lash  feeding  when  great  care  is  not  exercised. 

Improper  feeding  of  grass,  grains,  meat  and  too  little  grit. 

Lice,   mites  and  other  parasites  and  diseases. 

Allowing  larger  sizes  to  run  with  smaller  sizes. 

Many  other  causes  may  be  enumerated,  but  enough  have 
been  cited  to  impress  upon  the  operator  that  to  begin 
with  good,  strong,  vigorous  chicks  is  one  half  of  the 
brooding,  and  that  the  secondary  causes  are  well  within 
his  or  her  power  to  overcome.  A  primary  cause  is 
often  present  with  a  secondary  one  and  is  a  favorite 
excuse  with  some  operators  to  shift  the  blame  when  it 
really  is  brooding  neglect  that  is  at  the  base  of  all  the 
trouble  encountered. 

X.XTURAL  BrOODTXG. 

Natural  brooding  in  most  cases  follows  the  incubating 
period  of  the  mother.  In  many  cases  a  few  hens  are 
set  at  the  same  time  as  an  incubator  and  all  the  incubator 
chicks  are  divided  among  the  hens,  giving  to  each  from 
twelve  to  twenty-five  according  to  her  size  and  disposi- 
tion. As  a  rule  fifteen  should  be  the  Hmit  to  any  one  hen. 
Many  times  when  the  incubator  is  about  to  hatch,  a  few 
quiet  sitting  hens  are  procured  and  given  an  ^^g  or  two 
apiece  from  the  incubator  and  allowed  to  hatch  them  out. 
Nearly  all  the  hens  will  adopt  the  baby  chicks  and  they  are 
then  given  those  from  the  incubator.  Capons  have  been 
thus  used,  being  motherly  in  their  disposition.  One  should 


78  Science  amd  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

tiever  use  a  sitting  hen  with  scabby  legs  or  other  diseases. 
A  hen  which  has  not  incubated  her  own  eggs  for  the 
natural  period  rarely  ever  stays  with  her  chicks  as 
long  as  does  the  hen  having  fully  incubated  her  flock. 

Place — It  is  essential  that  the  hen  be  restrained  either 
by  the  limits  of  the  coop  or  by  a  yard  small  enough  so 
that  the  chicks  may  not  suffer  from  the  wet  grass,  rains, 
and  too  much  exercise.  Have  the  coop  dry,  warm,  well 
ventilated,  without  draughts,  ratproof,  and  easily  cleaned. 
Keep  it  on  fresh  ground  and  well  cleaned  at  all  times. 

Feed  and  Water — The  same  care  should  be  given  the 
chicks  as  given  in  the  artificial  brooding.  The  brooding 
hen  should  be  given  grain  and  water  and  such  other  feed 
as  will  keep  her  in  condition  for  her  duties.  Perhaps 
one  of  the  strongest  reasons  for  failure  in  natural  brood- 
ing lies  in  too  little  attention  being  given  to  the  manner 
of  feeding  and  the  amount  of  food  given.  It  is  quite 
essential  that  the  feed  be  of  the  right  amount  and  kind 
and  still  more  important  that  it  be  where  the  mother  bird 
is  not  able  to  deprive  the  chicks  of  their  rightful  share. 
Again  a  foul  place  to  feed  arising  either  from  droppings 
or  a  soured  feeding  place  will  bring  disease  and  its  con- 
sequent loss.  If  one  cannot  use  a  separate  compartment 
in  which  to  feed  the  chicks  it  is  best  to  have  a  pail  of 
whole  grain  from  which  to  feed  the  adult  fowls  so  that 
the  brood  may  have  a  better  chance  to  obtain  the  food 
intended  for  them  alone.  Watch  that  the  drinking 
founts  do  not  become  unfit  for  use. 

Development — As  to  general  care  and  treatment  every- 
thing which  applies  to  the  artificial  brooding  will  also 
apply  to  the  naturally  brooded  chick.  The  separation  of 
the  sexes,  the  weaning,  the  feeding  to  attain  a  certain 
object  are  the  same  in  either  case. 


Brooding  79 

Artificial  Brooding. 
Artificial  brooding  has  long  been  practiced  even  before 
artificial  incubation  came  into  existence.  Some  of  the 
old  fashioned  ways  were  quite  as  successful  if  not  as 
convenient  as  the  later  methods.  Artificial  brooding  has 
become  quite  necessary  to  breeders  who  raise  poultry  in 
large  numbers  and  at  a  time  of  year  when  hens  are  not 
obtainable.  For  the  commercial  broiler  and  duck  raisers 
they  are  indispensable.  In  fact  but  few  poultry  farms  grow 
the  young  stock  in  any  other  way  than  by  artificial  means. 
It  is  a  delightful  sight  to  see  a  brooder  full  of  happy 


SINGLE  COMB  BLACK  ORPINGTON. 
Courtesy   of   Fo.xhurst   Farm. 

and  contented  chicks  lying  stretched  out  upon  the  floor  of 
the  hover.  On  the  other  hand  no  more  pitiable  sight  could 
exist  for  the  lover  of  poultry  than  to  see  a  listless,  uneasy 
brood,  going  through  the  varying  periods  of  chilling, 
sweating,  and  struggling  for  existence  due  to  an  ignorant, 
careless  operator,  especially  when  one  knows  that  it  has 
an  uneven  battle  for  life.  Give  a  healthy  chick  half  a 
chance  for  life  and  it  will  win,  but  to  confine  it  in  a  death 
trap  in  which  no  form  of  animal  life  could  long  survive 
and  expect  it  to  develop  is  to  be  both  ignorant  and  cruel. 


80  SCIENXE  AND  ArT  OK    POULTRY   CULTURE 

Essentials  of  a  Cold  Brooder — Operators  arc  claiming 
success  in  the  use  of  a  brooder  which  is  suppHed  with  no 
artificial  heat  even  in  zero  weather.  The  aim  is  to  retain 
the  body  heat  of  the  chick  for  its  own  benefit  by  means  of 
a  warm  hover  which  is  insulated  against  changes  of  tem- 
perature from  without  and  at  the  same  time  conserving 


A  VETERAN  BARRED  ROCK. 

the  body  heat  within.  If  entirely  practical  when  rightly 
handled  it  would  have  many  advantages.  We  merely  give 
the  principle  as  above  stated  pending  further  experi- 
ments, therefore  we  decline  to  doubt  the  sincerity  of 
either  its  advocates  or  its  critics.  All  other  elements  of 
brooding  would  be  in  common  with  warmed  hovers  as 
found  below. 

Essentials  of  a  JJ^anii  Brooder — In  purchasing  a 
brooder  one  should  correctly  understand  what  constitutes 
its  essentials  and  to  do  this  is  to  keep  well  in  mind  the 
object  to  be  attained.  The  construction  of  the  various 
parts  of  the  brooder  should  allow  certain  results  to  be 
easily  and  certainly  attained. 


Brooding 


81 


There  should  be  a  steady  flow  of  properly  warmed, 
fresh  air  supplied  by  overhead  diffusion  so  located  and 
protected  that  the  chick  can  easily  find  the  source  of 
warmth  as  well  as  be  able  to  get  away  from  it  when 
uncomfortable.  To  secure  this  the  lamp,  heater  and 
piping"  should  be  examined  and  if  inadequate  should  be 


ROSE  COMB   RHODE  ISLAND  RED. 
Courtesy   of    Lester    Tompkins. 

rejected.  It  is  not  important  whether  it  be  a  hot  water 
or  hot  air  system  but  if  the  latter  the  supply  of  fresh  air 
must  be  insisted  upon.  An  accurate  thermometer  is  very 
essential  to  a  beginner,  although  the  older  operators 
watch  their  birds  more  than  the  reading  of  the  ther- 
mometer. A  regulator  is  also  used  by  some.  There 
should  also  be  provided  plenty  of  exercise  and  a  choice 
of  temperature  secured  by  a  hover,  day  or  exercising 
room,  limited  run  and  yard. 

\"entilation  should  be  carefully  watched  as  pure,  whole- 


82  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

some  air  is  one  of  the  main  factors  in  all  animal  life. 
In  the  warm  air  brooders  this  problem  is  half  solved  but 
in  every  brooder  other  provision  should  be  made  to  allow 
the  exhausted  air  an  opportunity  to  escape. 

Dryness,  a  reasonable  amount  of  sunlight,  roominess, 
an  adequate  place  to  feed  and  water,  a  movable  device  to 
keep  the  wee  chicks  within  bounds  and  the  entire  brooder 
so  built  and  arranged  that  it  is  easily  cleaned,  all  these 
are  well  worth  careful  consideration.  While  a  brooder 
is  simple  yet  that  simplicity  is  most  exacting. 

Kinds  of  Brooders — Putting  aside  the  different  modes 
of  supply  heat  among  which  are  hot  air,  hot  water  and 
electricity,  there  are  several  styles  of  brooders  in  opera- 
tion, chief  among  which  are  indoor,  outdoor,  and  plant 
brooders.  The  two  former  are  usually  individual  and 
movable  while  the  latter  one  is  stationary  and  is  usually 
spoken  of  as  a  brooder  house.  The  brooder  house  is 
often  a  combination  house  and  utilizes  a  portion  of  the 
floor  for  steam  pipe  or  air  heating  over  which  is  a  hover 
arrangement  to  accommodate  the  chicks  or  other  young 
fowls.  These  buildings  often  have  more  than  one  brooder 
floor  or  shelf,  thus  increasing  the  capacity  by  as  many 
times  as  there  are  floors.  This  also  lessens  the  care  tak- 
ing to  quite  an  appreciable  extent. 

It  is  the  main  purpose  here  to  divide  brooders  into  two 
classes  only,  indoor  and  outdoor  machines.  By  indoor 
brooders  are  meant  those  machines  which  are  so  built  that 
some  extra  shelter  from  wind  and  storm  must  be  pro- 
vided. It  is  usual  to  place  them  within  a  brooder  house, 
protected  shed  or  any  other  place  where  conditions  will 
be  favorable  and  the  heat  maintained  to  the  right  degree. 
\^ery  few  of  them  will  maintain  a  correct  temperature 
unless  the  chill  be  taken  out  of  the  room  wherein  they  are 
located.     The  outdoor  brooders  are  often  recommended 


Brooding  83 

for  both  outdoor  and  indoor  work,  since  it  matters  little 
what  the  temperature  is  without.  Properly  constructed 
they  should  give  very  little  trouble  even  under  adverse 
conditions. 

The  question  of  a  heating  system  in  a  building  as  com- 
pared with  the  individual  brooder  is  largely  one  pertain- 
ing to  the  number  of  fowls  to  be  kept  and  the  operator's 
experience.  Where  the  stock  to  be  raised  will  only  num- 
ber a  few  hundred  it  doubtless  is  economy  to  use  individ- 
ual brooders,  since  it  costs  as.  much  to  warm  up  the 
system  for  a  few  fowls  as  for  the  full  capacity.  However 
where  many  are  to  be  raised  the  system  is  essential  to 
economy.  In  the  individual  brooder  a  mistake  or  ac- 
cident affects  only  the  one  brood  while  a  similar  trouble 
in  the  system  affects  the  entire  output. 

Setting  Up  a  Brooder — If  the  machine  is  purchased  of 
a  manufacturer  do  not  assume  to  be  able  to  set  it  up  with- 
out carefully  reading  over  the  printed  instructions. 
Many  errors  and  faultfindings  are  due  to  this  one  cause 
and  no  matter  how  familiar  one  may  be  with  brooders 
the  instructions  of  the  manufacturer  m.ay  be  able  to  save 
time  and  needless  criticism. 

Capacity  of  a  Brooder — Apparently  contradicting  the 
thought  expressed  in  the  preceding  paragraph  we 
now  caution  the  operator  against  one  of  the  greatest 
evils  of  artificial  brooding,  that  of  overcrowding.  When 
any  manufacturer  claims  that  any  one  compartment  hover 
will  accommodate  more  than  fifty  chicks  at  one  brood- 
ing it  is  time  that  the  individual  should  exercise  some 
sound  judgment  on  his  own  account  and  save  consequent 
suffering  and  loss  among  the  brood.  The  claim  of  the 
average  manufacturer  should  be  reduced  by  one-half. 
Each  justifies  himself  in  his  false  claim  upon  the  ground 
that  he  is  rating  his  machine  according  to  the  standard 


84  Science  and  Art  of  I'oultky  Culture 

set  by  other  manufacturers.  In  no  way  is  it  justifiable  es- 
pecially in  the  light  of  the  fearful  chick  loss  caused  by 
the  consequent  overcrowding.  Fifty  chicks  in  one  hover 
is  the  outside  limit  that  should  be  allowed  and  fewer 
would  give  better  results.  A  liberal  floor  space  under 
the  hover,  a  spacious  nursery  or  exercising  room  which 
is  cooler  than  the  hover,  and  later  a  run  are  all  very 
important  to   successful  poultry  brooding. 

Locating^  a  Brooder — Indoor  brooders  during  cold 
weather  should  be  placed  in  a  room  or  building  with 
some  provision  for  heating  it  to  about  seventy  degrees. 
If  it  is  late  spring  or  summer  any  place  protected  from 
the  sun,  storm  and  wind  will  be  sufficierit.  Placed  in 
brooder  house  runs  the  machines  are  easily  cared  for  and 
the  chicks  have  their  liberty  even  during  stormy  days. 
A  colony  house  is  an  ideal  place  for  a  brooder  if  the 
floor  space  be  large  enough  and  the  right  temperature 
can  be  maintained. 

Outdoor  brooders  may  be  used  in  any  location  desired 
although  if  one  chooses  the  best  available  place  the  chicks 
have  that  much  more  in  their  favor.  Avoid  extremes 
of  sun  and  wind.  Keep  each  size  of  chickens  or  duck- 
lings by  themselves.  Give  every  advantage  to  natural 
shelter  in  location,  thereby  saving  fuel  and  possible  dan- 
ger of  lamps  becoming  extinguished.  Be  careful  to 
choose  level  ground  or  use  artificial  means  for  that  pur- 
pose. 

Preparing  tJie  Brooder — When  the  brooder  has  been 
chosen,  set  up  and  located,  it  should  then  be  made 
ready  for  the  brood  at  least  a  day  in  advance  of 
the  time  needed  for  use.  Start  the  iamp,  taking 
every  precaution  used  in  the  lamp  and  heater  of 
an  incubator.  While  the  temperature  is  rising  to  the 
desired  point  scatter  dry  fresh  sand  or  soil  upon  the  floor 


Brooding  85 

of  the  hover  and  day  room,  covering  it  with  a  little  fine 
cut  clover  or  chaff  free  from  barbs  or  thistles.  This  will 
allow  dryness,  exercise  and  cleanliness.  Many  use  gravel 
instead  of  sand  while  some  use  grit  in  the  sand.  Many 
prefer  to  let  the  chick  wait  for  its  grit  until  time  for  its 
first  feeding  and  then  use  it  somewhat  sparingly.  Their 
reason  is  that  many  brooder  chicks  do  not  discriminate 
enough  in  their  feeding  and  overload  on  bright,  attract- 
ive grit.  When  the  temperature  has  risen  to  a  proper 
point  and  the  hatch  is  ready  to  take  off  place  fresh  water 
into  a  proper  receptacle  and  the  machine  is  ready  for 
its  downy  dwellers. 

Temperature — There  should  be  three  or  four  different 
temperatures  for  each  machine  and  its  environment.  The 
hover,  the  day  or  exercising  room,  the  limited  run  and 
the  yard  should  each  have  its  own  degree  of  temper- 
ature. The  last  two  named  in  mild  weather  will  be 
of  like  degree.  This  vacation  allows  the  young  to 
choose  their  own  temperature  fitted  to  secure  comfort 
according  to  its  size,  weather  and  brooder  conditions. 

The  hover  should  not  be  a  place  where  a  healthy 
robust  chick  or  duckling  would  wish  to  stay  for  more 
than  a  short  time  during  the  day.  It  should  range 
warm  enough  so  that  a  short  day  stay  would  suffice, 
and  at  night  to  allow  of  a  well  spread  out  brood.  What 
this  temperature  ought  to  be  is  very  hard  to  define,  since 
like  in  human  beings  any  two  days  might  be  widely 
variant.  A  damp,  bleak  day  requires  a  higher  temper- 
ature to  maintain  a  certain  degree  of  vitality  than  would 
a  bright  sunny  day.  Again  during  the  winter  months 
a  different  degree  would  be  desired  than  would  be 
necessary  in  warm  weather.  In  the  winter  a  dash  from 
a  cold  run  into  the  hover  should  meet  with  a  quick 
warmth  while  on  a  mild  day  a  lesser  degree  would  warm 


86  Science  and  Art  of  1'oultky  Culture 

up  the  young  quite  as  quickly.  These  are  matters  of  the 
judgment.  This  also  explains  why  some  authors  advise 
a  hover  temperature  of  90°  while  some  advise  as  high 
as  105°.  The  happy  medium  for  a  beginner  is  from 
95°  to  100°  until  one  can  learn  from  observation  the  real 
needs  of  the  brood. 

Again  as  the  brood  grows  older  the  need  for  arti- 
ficial warmth  grows  less  and  to  obtain  robust  birds  the 
heat  must  accordingly  be  reduced  week  by  week  until 
weaning  time  when  it  is  entirely  taken  away  and  if 
deemed  necessary  a  dummy  hover  used  to  keep  the  nat- 
ural body  heat  confined  to  some  extent.  The  average 
heat  reduction  varies  with  different  operators  from  2° 
to  5°  per  week  depending  upon  the  w^eather  and  the 
season. 

It  is  better  to  carry  too  high  a  temperature  than  to 
allow  the  brood  to  huddle  and  crowd  and  then  sweat. 
Too  high  a  degree  devitalizes,  although  better  too  warm 
than  too  cold.  When  they  are  comfortable  they  will  be 
well  spread  out  and  peeping  out  of  their  hover.  When 
they  wander  about,  are  listless,  crowd  and  are  complain- 
ing, attention  should  at  once  be  given.  Also  remember 
that  the  flame  or  other  source  of  heat  should  be  ample 
to  keep  up  the  temperature  in  the  early  morning  when 
the  outside  conditions  are  most  unfavorable,  the  vitality 
of  the  brood  is  lowest  and  the  oil  and  wick  at  least  ef- 
ficiency. Control  the  temperature  from  the  flame  and 
ventilators. 

Teaching  and  Caring  for  the  Brood — In  handling  a 
newly  hatched  brood  intelligently  one  must  understand 
that  they  come  into  the  world  motherless,  with  certain 
instincts  more  or  less  developed  and  at  the  mercy  of 
the  caretaker.  They  know  nothing  of  the  ways  of  their 
new  world  and  must  be  taught.    That  they  are  apt  pupils 


Brooding  87 

is  needless  to  say.  They  have  an  instinct  to  move  sHghtly 
upward  when  in  motion,  an  instinct  to  eat  and  drink, 
an  instinct  for  warmth,  and  an  instinct  or  early  habit 
formed  to  recur  to  the  place  where  these  comforts  of 
life  were  once  obtained.  Therefore  to  take  advantage 
of  the  last  named  tendency  will  save  one  much  waste  of 
time  trying  to  change  their  early  habits  because  they 
were  not  given  somewhat  permanent  conditions  the  first 
few  days. 

The  first  named  instinct  is  often  taken  advantage  of 
by  placing  the  hover  higher  than  the  day  room,  also  al- 
lowing an  advantage  of  temperature.  The  hover  teaching 
is  best  attained  by  leaving  the  brood  in  the  incubator  un- 
til they  are  about  two  days  old  so  that  they  may  be 
placed  into  the  brooder  toward  evening  in  time  to  par- 
take of  a  light  supper,  fresh  water  and  then  at  once 
be  placed  under  the  hover  for  their  first  sleep.  Having 
been  warm  and  comfortable  during  the  night  the  ten- 
dency the  next  day  is  to  return  to  the  hover  when  chilly, 
and  by  a  little  close  attention  for  the  next  two  or  three 
days  they  will  care  for  themselves  readily.  If  they  have 
been  neglected  during  that  period  and  should  have  hud- 
dled in  a  sunny  spot  when  chilly  the  recurrent  tendency 
will  exist  for  days.  To  teach  them  easily  and  save 
time  the  operator  should  have  a  small  device  covered 
with  fine  screening  which  will  fit  the  hover  so  that  when 
set  in  any  position  desired  it  will  not  allow  the  brood 
to  get  more  than  a  short  distance  from  the  hover,  or  it 
desired  quite  confine  them  to  the  hover.  By  placing  this 
in  position  the  first  evening  one  can  rest  assured  that 
none  of  the  brood  will  wander  away  and  get  chilled  dur- 
ing the  night  and  at  the  same  time  no  air  will  be  shut 
off.  By  giving  more  room  about  the  hover  each  night 
the  teaching  is  completed  with  very  little  effort.     The 


88  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

same  device  is  used  during  the  day  to  place  the  brood 
entirely  under  the  hover  for  a  very  short  time  until  they 
have  learned  that  the  hover  is  the  source  of  warmth. 
By  gradually  limiting  their  entrance  to  the  day  room, 
to  the  run  and  to  the  yard,  only  a  short  time  will  elapse 
until  they  are  independent  except  in  the  case  of  sud- 
den storms,  which  is  another  new  object  lesson.  Be  on 
hand  when  it  begins  to  sprinkle  and  drive  the  little  ones 
into  shelter  at  once.  After  a  time  or  two  they  will  at 
once  seek  shelter  upon  the  approach  of  a  storm.  This 
is  especially  important  in  the  case  of  outdoor  brooders. 
The  attendant  whose  personal  comfort  is  placed  above 
that  of  the  brood  will  allow  plenty  of  loss  during  severe 
storms.  They  easily  drown  while  small  and  cold  rain 
will  also  chill  them. 

IMany  operators  who  raise  but  a  few  often  assist  the 
chick  or  duckling  by  dipping  the  beak  into  the  water 
and  tapping  the  floor  to  show  them  the  food.  We  be- 
lieve both  a  useless  practice  and  also  impractical  with 
large  broods.  Instinct  will  suffice  for  nearly  all  and 
the  more  backward  ones  have  the  example  of  the  more 
forward  ones.  The  teaching  of  the  brood  to  come  by 
call  is  accomplished  by  the  voice,  a  whistle,  tapping  on 
a  pail  and  numerous  other  devices. 

Watch  every  discomfort  and  especially  any  overcrowd- 
ing and  correct  them.  Always  shut  in  the  brood  at  night 
to  protect  them  against  all  kinds  of  enemies.  Protect 
them  against  lice  and  mites,  for  even  brooder  chicks  will 
sometimes  become  infested  by  means  of  the  English 
sparrow. 

The  care  of  the  lamps  and  heating  system  is  the  same 
as  with  the  incubator  except  that  the  outdoor  brood- 
ers should  receive  closer  attention  during  rough  weather. 


Brooding  89 

and  during  hard  storms  the  attendant  should  inspect 
them  more  often. 

The  cleaning  of  the  brooders  should  be  regular.  Twice 
during  the  first  week,  three  times  during  the  second 
and  third  weeks,  and  daily  thereafter  is  sufficient.  Air 
out  the  brooders  daily  if  the  weather  and  age  of  the 
brood  allow.  Sunlight  is  the  deadliest  enemy  of  poultry 
diseases  known.  Keep  the  brooder  sweet  and  sanitary. 
If  possible  remove  the  hover  for  cleaning  and  airing. 
Do  not  throw  the  refuse  upon  the  ground  as  the  ground 
soon  becomes  filthy  and  unsanitary.  Have  a  place  for 
all  refuse  and  at  stated  times  place  it  upon  the  proper 
fields  or  sell  it.  Whenever  a  brooder  becomes  empty 
always  disinfect  it  with  any  good  disinfectant  and  air  it 
out  well  before  using  again.  Diseases  such  as  white 
diarrhea  will  infect  a  coop  or  brooder  for  many  seasons 
unless  precaution  is  exercised. 

Watch  the  brood  for  the  appearance  of  any  disease. 
Bowel  trouble  is  the  one  most  likely  to  attack  the  brood 
and  may  result  from  many  causes,  principal  among  which 
are  weak  parentage,  improper  incubation,  wrong  feeding 
or  careless  brooding.  ]\Iake  a  study  of  any  good  work 
on  poultry  diseases  and  their  remedies  in  order  to  be- 
come more  capable  of  detecting  any  approaching  trouble. 
Feeding  and  Exercise. 

Exercise  is  to  the  young  of  fowls  just  what  it  is  to 
all  warm-blooded  life,  an  absolute  necessity.  Keep  the 
brood  busy  and  strength  and  vigor  result.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  feeding  in  litter  in  the  day  chamber  and  run. 
At  first  place  it  only  about  a  half  inch  deep  increasing 
the  depth  each  week.  Some  breeders  will  place  an  al- 
ternate layer  of  litter  and  feed  to  the  depth  of  several 
nches  and  feed  no  more  until  it  has  been  well  gleaned. 
This  method  saves  labor  but  is  much  discouraging  to  the 


90  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

weaker  members  of  the  brood.  What  kind  of  Htter  to 
use  is  a  pertinent  query  and  inch-cut  clover  best  an- 
swers it  because  of  the  food  and  medicinal  value  of  the 
leaves.  Any  litter  will  do  which  does  not  afford  too 
much  irritating  dust  or  barbs  and  is  fine  enough  for 
ready  movement  by  the  brood.  Litter  placed  upon  dry 
soil  or  sand  affords  more  exercise  since  the  seed  is  less 
available  by  small  effort. 

Feeding  is  a  subject  regarding  which  there  are  a  great 
variety  of  opinions,  yet  when  analyzed  are  all  based  upon 
common  principles  as  will  be  seen  on  a  study  of  our 
analysis  of  foods  in  "  Foods  and  Feeding." 

The  young  of  any  common  fowl  should  not  be  given 
food  ^t  once  upon  exclusion,  since  just  before  hatching 
the  yellow  or  yolk  of  the  egg  is  absorbed  by  the  de- 
veloped embryo  and  retained  by  it  for  use  as  a  food  for 
the  first  few  days  of  its  free  existence.  To  introduce  other 
food  into  its  system  before  this  yolk  has  time  to  absorb 
is  to  do  for  the  newl}'  hatched  fowl  what  severe  bilious- 
ness does  in  the  human  family.  By  giving  the  system 
time  to  digest  this  food  provided  by  nature  the  start  in 
life  will  be  vigorous  and  responsive. 

The  first  food  should  be  given  at  the  end  of  the  sec- 
ond or  third  day  and  should  be  doled  out  sparingly. 
Water,  fresh  and  pure,  should  be  given  freely  from  the 
first  and  kept  constantly  within  their  reach.  Charcoal 
and  cut  clover  should  also  be  a  daily  supply.  Grit  of  such 
size  as  can  be  easily  swallowed  should  be  supplied  early. 
Some  claim  they  should  have  all  they  can  be  induced  to 
eat  before  any  food  is  given.  Others  claim  such  a  course 
leads  to  disaster  because  the  wee  birds  do  not  know  when 
to  stop  eating  the  attractive  looking  objects.  We  believe 
in  a  liberal  allowance  in  the  food  for  a  few  days,  then 
placed  before  them  in  a  hopper. 


Brooding  91 

Besides  water,  grit,  clover,  charcoal  and  shell  a  cor- 
rectly balanced  ration  for  complete  and  normal  devel- 
opment is  necessary.  Note  under  "  Foods  and  Feeding  " 
a  discussion  of  balanced  rations.  The  controversy  over 
dry  and  wet  mashes  is  unnecessary  as  either  method  is 
correct  if  properly  handled.  In  wet  mash  feeding  it 
is  quite  essential  that  only  enough  be  given  to  satisfy 
the  appetite,  thus  insuring  a  clean  place  to  feed  again. 
All  dishes,  pails  and  feed  troughs  should  be  well  cleaned 
each  day.  It  is  the  decomposing  matter  in  the  cracks 
and  crevices  that  harbor  bacteria  so  deadly  when  put 
at  work  in  the  digestive  tract  of  a  little  bird.  In  dry 
mash  feeding  this  danger  does  not  seem  to  exist  to  the 
same  extent. 

Weaning.  'IX 

Weaning  in  connection  with  brooding  by  either  nat- 
ural  or  artificial   means   is   the   gradual   process   of   re- 
ducing the  supply  of  exterior  heat  to  the  point  of  total    i 
extinction. 

Under  the  mother  the  brood  gradually  outgrows  its 
quarters  and  only  by  crowding  one  another  away  can 
a  temporary  shelter  under  the  mother  wing  be  enjoyed. 
This  process  alone  tends  to  wean  the  brood  until  a  point 
is  reached  where  the  mother  refuses  longer  to  be  thus 
abused  and  returns  to  her  former  childless  world.  If  the 
natural  mother  hurries  this  weaning  she  can  still  be  made 
to  hover  them  at  night  by  confining  her  in  the  coop  in 
which  her  brood  stays,  and  if  she  will  not  allow  them 
to  enter  such  coop  then  she  must  be  discarded  and  a 
cloth  hover  afforded  until  such  time  as  the  brood  can 
shift  for  itself  at  night. 

In  the  artificial  brooding  it  is  a  question  of  heat  re- 
duction week  by  week,  as  explained  in  "  Temperature," 
until  they   can   do   without   any   artificial   supply   unless 


92  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

a  cloth  hover  be  furnished  to  retain  their  own  body  heat. 

The  weaning  should  be  a  gradual  hardening  process 
so  that  no  sudden  change  will  check  or  stunt  the  rapid 
and  vigorous  development  of  the  brood.  Pay  the  clos- 
est attention  to  their  feeding  and  comfort  at  weaning 
time.  Therefore  no  set  time,  limit  or  age  can  be  given 
for  weaning  since  the  breed,  the  season  of  the  year  and 
their  general  development  would  govern  in  large  meas- 
ure. Six  weeks  might  be  a  fair  age  in  warmer  weather 
and  mild  climates  while  ten  weeks  might  be  required 
in  cold  seasons  and  farther  north.  Again  judgment 
must  be  exercised  for  the  best  results. 

About  this  time  if  the  weather  is  moderate  the  brood 
will  begin  to  show  a  tendency  to  desire  a  roost.  A  low 
roosting  bench  may  be  given  and  in  a  few  days  the  cloth 
hover  may  be  taken  out  entirely.  Nearly  all  the  half 
grown  chickens  will  seek  the  low  roosts  given  them. 
The  roosts  may  be. left  out  a  few  days  until  the  colony 
house  shall  be  occupied  if  the  brooder  is  otherwise  lo- 
cated. The  last  step  in  passing  from  a  brood  to  a  grown 
flock  is  the  putting  them  out  into  colony  houses  upon  free 
range,  if  possible  each  sex  by  itself.  Do  not  put  into  each 
house  more  than  twenty-five  birds  and  even  less  would 
be  better.  Ducklings  need  only  a  little  litter  to  sit  upon 
but  should  be  kept  in  a  cleanly  condition. 

Separating  the  Sexes. 

At  or  soon  after  weaning  time  the  young  males  begin 
to  show  signs  of  sex  awakening  and  begin  to  develop 
their  combs  and  wattles.  They  become  important  and 
quarrelsome  if  kept  with  the  females  and  cause  the  lat- 
ter needless  worry  which  retards  development.  When 
apart  both  sexes  do  better  and  are  more  easily  and  eco- 
nomically kept,  unless  intended  for  breeders. 


Chapter  VIII. 
FOODS  AND  FEEDING. 
General. 
The  subject  of  foods  and  feeding  is  of  the  most  vital 
importance  to  every  poitltryman  regardless  of  his  age 
or  experience.  It  is  a  subject  which  is  rapidly  develop- 
ing and  toward  which  some  of  the  most  earnest  thought 
of  our  experimental  stations  is  being  directed.  Upon  it 
depends  not  only  the  health  and  welfare  of  the  poultry 
but  also  the  profits  to  be  derived  will  flow  from  the  proper 
balancing  of  food,  the  manner  of  its  feeding  and  the 
economy  of  its  selection.  It  is  well  known  that  the  mar- 
ket value  of  food  ingredients  differs  widely  in  various 
localities  and  the  wide-awake  man  will  study  the  food 
problem  carefully,  ^^'hat  follows  is  an  earnest  attempt 
to  put  forward  clearly  and  logically  a  few  ideas  that  may 
assist  in  the  better  understanding  of  the  important  prob- 
lem of  correct  feeding. 

Requirements  of  a  Proper  Food. 

Xo  hard  and  fast  principles  apply  in  considering  the 
requirements  of  a  proper  food  for  poultry.  Fowls  of  dif- 
ferent ages,  in  varying  climates,  and  for  definite  purposes 
require  nutriment  of  a  different  kind  and  in  a  different 
degree.  How  irrational  it  would  be  to  give  the  same  ra- 
tion and  treatment  to  a  hen  producing  eggs  for  incuba- 
tion, to  a  hen  for  forced  laying  for  commercial  profit, 
to  a  moulting  hen.  to  a  hen  intended  for  the  showroom 
and  to  a  hen  desired  for  market.  Such  a  lack  of  fore- 
93 


94  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

sight  must  ultimately  lead  to  failure.  In  short  there  must 
be  a  proper  food,  fed  in  the  proper  manner  and  at  the 
proper  time.  The  requirements  of  a  proper  food  then 
should  contain  these  essentials :  Economy  of  cost  and  ^ 
availability ;  non-injurious  to  the  color,  flavor  or  texture ; 
contain  all  the  elements  that  promote  growth  and  pro- 
ductiveness ;  a  variety  of  ingredients  relished ;  adaptable 
to  the  age,  breed,  climate  and  purpose ;  sufficient  bulk  to 
allow  of  normal  digestion ;  limited  in  fibre  to  allow  of 
no  waste  of  energy ;  enough  whole  grain  and  grit  to 
properly  use  and  exercise  the  muscles  of  the  digestive 
organs,  and  in  a  form  to  induce  sufficient  exercise. 
Explanation  of  Terms. 

A  ration  as  applied  to  poultry  feeding  means  a  fixed 
daily  allowance  of  food  to  each  individual  fowl. 

A  balanced  ration  is  therefore  a  perfect  food  or  one 
fulfilling  every  natural  requirement  of  each  fowl  consid- 
ering its  age,  its  stage  of  development,  the  climatic  con- 
ditions, and  the  mission  in  poultrydom  it  is  to  fulfil.  It  is 
a  happy  medium  between  a  narrow  and  wide  ration  for 
the  use  intended. 

The  term  narrozv  ration  in  feeding  is  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  a  poultry  food  in  which  protein  exists  in  equal 
or  even  in  much  1  s  proportion  than  carbohydrates  and 
fats,  while  the  term  wide  ration  is  where  the  carbo- 
hydrates heavily  predominate. 

Protein  is  often  used  interchangeably  with  the  terms 
nitrogcnons  and  albuminous.  It  is  the  important  element 
in  the  making  of  blood,  flesh,  feathers,  eggs  and  the  main 
organs  of  the  fowl,  hence  its  value  can  readily  be  seen. 

Carbohydrates  and  fats  furnish  the  fats  or  starchy  ele- 
ments of  foods.  They  furnish  the  heat  of  the  body  and 
renew  the  energy,  muscles,  and  certain  tissues.  Extra 
quantities  of  carbohydrates  are  deposited  as  fat. 


Foods  and  Feeding  95 

Water  is  contained  in  some  degree  in  all  foods,  but  be- 
ing supplied  in  the  free  form  is  largely  ignored  in  the 
analysis  of  foods. 

Ash  or  mineral  matter  in  food  is  important  in  the  form- 
ing of  bone  and  egg  shells,  and  being  fed  in  the  form  of 
grit,  bone,  and  shells  is  not  so  important  in  the  study  of 
rations. 

Composition  of  Poultry  Products. 

A  chemical  analysis  of  fowls  of  all  ages,  their  products 
and  excretions  has  given  to  mankind  a  better  understand- 
ing of  what  foods  are  required  for  their  production.  Un- 
der the  chapter  devoted  to  the  "  Food  Value  of  Poultry 
Produce  "  it  will  be  seen  what  elements  enter  into  the 
different  kinds  of  poultry  produce  and  in  w^hat  propor- 
tions, and  thus  a  more  intelhgent  study  may  be  given  to 
the  formation  of  a  balanced  ration. 

Rel.vtion  of  Feeding  to  Food  \'alues. 

Both  the  kind  of  food  and  the  manner  of  feeding  affect 
the  value  of  the  product  obtained  thereby.  The  flavor  of 
eggs  and  flesh  is  affected  by  foods  as  is  often  evidenced 
by  the  use  of  fish,  onions,  celery  or  other  highly  flavored 
articles.  Ducks  in  process  of  fattening  or  finishing  for 
market  are  often  fed  celery  seed  because  there  is  a  de- 
mand for  duck  flesh  so  flavored.  The  color  of  the  fin- 
ished bird  when  dressed  as  well  as  the  plumage  of  the 
fowl  intended  for  the  showroom  is  governed  to  quite  an 
extent  by  the  kind  of  food  given.  A  narrow  ration,  espe- 
cially if  it  be  very  nitrogenous,  will  tend  toward  a  darker 
flesh  while  a  wide  ration  will  tend  toward  a  lighter  flesh. 
Growers  have  long  fed  an  oat,  buckwheat  and  milk  mash 
to  whiten  the  dressed  product :  also  if  a  fowl  is  not  fed 
what  the  age,  breed,  climate  and  purpose  demand  the 
product  will  be  lacking  in  vitality  and  development.  The 
manner  of  feeding  has  little  to  do  with  flavor  or  color 


96  Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

but  everything  to  do  with  the  texture  of  the  flesh.  If 
the  fowls  are  fed  sparingly  on  a  ration  not  relished  or 
even  where  the  ration  is  relished  but  given  on  large 
range  or  under  compulsory  exercise  the  flesh  will  tend 
toward  being  hard  and  stringy.  Again  the  ration  being 
correct  for  the  purpose,  exercise  compelled  only  for 
actual  needs,  a  quick  growth  or  fattening  process  will 
result  in  a  plump,  juicy,  tender,  well-colored  and  well- 
flavored  product.  Soft  foods  fed  in  a  correct  form  and 
properly  balanced  are  better  for  quick  finishing  and  fat- 
tening purposes  than  are  unground  foods.  Whether  they 
are  fed  warm  or  cold  seems  to  make  no  difference  to  the 
food  values.  It  is  assumed  that  the  time  of  feeding  and 
amount  to  be  given  to  promote  healthy  and  vigorous  re- 
sults are  understood.  The  effect  of  the  kind  of  foods  and 
the  manner  of  the  feeding  is  plainly  important  and  is 
easily  controlled. 

Digestibility  of  and  Preference  for  Foods. 

The  duty  of  the  digestive  tract  is  to  prepare  the  nutri- 
tive values  of  foods  for  the  use  of  the  fowl.  This  prep- 
aration completed,  the  circulatory  system  becomes  the 
messenger  or  carrier  of  this  nutriment  to  all  portions  of 
the  fowl.  The  blood  therefore  must  be  well  supplied 
with  whatever  is  necessary  to  promote  growth,  renew 
worn  tissues,  furnish  heat  and  allow  of  productiveness. 

This  tract  is  made  up  of  the  beak,  a  mouth  without 
teeth,  gullet,  crop  (in  almost  all  fowls),  orifice  leading  to 
a  stomach  and  beyond  the  stomach  to  the  gizzard,  the 
intestinal  canal  several  feet  long  and  folded  upon  itself 
many  times,  cjecum,  cloaca  and  vent.  The  mouth,  crop, 
stomach,  gizzard,  pancreas,  gall  bladder,  and  intestines 
furnish  secretions  which  aid  complete  digestion.  In  the 
gizzard  the  food  is  ground,  moistened  and  mixed  and 
the  lack  of  teeth  is  thus  provided  for  by  nature. 


Foods  and  Feeding  97 

In  studying  the  problem  of  feeding  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  amount  of  a  given  food  which  can  be 
assimilated,  or  in  other  words  the  amount  that  is  digest- 
ible is  the  real  test  of  its  value.  Again  the  age  and 
general  condition  of  a  fowl,  as  well  as  the  influence  on 
other  foods  fed  at  the  same  time,  all  have  their  influence 
in  determining  the  real  value  of  a  specific  food.  The 
crude  fibres  in  man}-  grains  and  vegetables  are  really 
indigestible,  yet  are  useful  as  a  diluent  of  other  more 
concentrated  foods  and  as  a  distender  of  the  digestive 
organs.  Variety  in  foods  is  the  most  important  aid  to 
digestion  the  poultryman  can  employ.  It  avoids  the 
cloyed  appetite  and  its  consequent  evils. 

The  grain  products  vary  widely  in  composition  and 
form  and  therefore  the  digestibility  varies.  The  prefer- 
ence shown  for  such  foods  also  varies  to  a  large  extent. 
The  latter  is  also  somewhat  governed  by  what  grains  the 
fowl  is  accustomed  to,  as  well  as  by  the  weather  con- 
ditions, yet  a  marked  preference  is  shown  for  the  grains 
which  have  the  least  fibre  covering.  Wheat  and  corn  are 
preferred  to  oats  or  barley.  Experiments  have  proven 
that  fowls  are  not  entirely  to  be  trusted  to  regulate  their 
own  diet  of  grain  unless  the  sole  object  is  to  fatten  them, 
or  because  of  age,  range,  breed,  temperature  or  exercise 
the  choice  of  grains  will  be  less  important,  ^^l^ile  they 
will  choose  a  diet  containing  all  their  needs,  yet  the  ten- 
dency will  be  to  take  upon  themselves  too  much  of  a 
store  of  surplus  fats.  The  grains  containing  fibre  or  cov- 
erings of  fibre  are  not  so  digestible  as  those  with  less. 
Again  some  grains  seem  to  tax  the  secretions  to  a  greater 
extent  than  others  and  for  this  reason  caution  should  be 
exercised  in  feeding  rye,  cottonseed  meal,  bran  and  other 
similar  substances.  In  warm  weather  the  carbohydrates 
are  taxing  to  the  system  as  they  are  heat  producers.    The 


98  Science  and  Art  of  Puultrv  Culture 


BARRED  PLYMOUTH  ROCK. 
Courtesy  of  Peerless  Poultry  Plant   (Inc.). 


Foods  and  Feeding  99 

highly  concentrated  foods  should  be  handled  with  care 
or  disorders  result.  Lack  of  variety  impairs  the  vitality 
and  cloys  the  appetite.  A  fairly-balanced  ration  of  vari- 
ous grains  solves  the  problem  of  digestibility.  These 
are  a  few  of  the  main  dangers  with  grain  and  such  other 
evils  as  appear  are  due  more  to  the  neglect  in  the  man- 
ner of  feeding  than  in  the  foods. 

The  animal  products  are  usually  very  rich  in  protein. 
They  are  also  subject  to  wide  variation  in  analysis,  hence 
buyers  must  be  careful  and  purchase  from  a  responsible 
source.  All  are  digestible  if  not  allowed  in  too  large 
quantities  at  one  time,  especially  where  that  element  has 
been  lacking  and  the  fowl  craves  it.  Fowls  will  choose 
fresh-cooked  lean  meat  over  all  forms  of  animal  food 
(excepting  worms  and  bugs)  if  given  a  choice.  The 
better  grades  of  meat  scrap,  dried  blood  and  meat  meal 
are  richer  in  protein  and  produce  the  best  results 
although  variety  must  also  be  observed.  It  has  been 
well  demonstrated  that  a  ration  of  grain  and  vegetables 
which  contains  the  same  elements  as  one  in  which  ani- 
mal products  also  enter  in  part  does  not  give  as  good 
results  as  when  the  animal  elements  are  included.  Over- 
feeding of  animal  foods  disarranges  the  intestinal  tracts 
and  produces  leg  weakness  in  young  fowls.  The  narrow 
ration  element  aids  digestion  when  properly  fed  and  is 
the  source  of  a  large  supply  of  the  nutrition  needed  in 
the  normal  development  of  a  fowl  and  its  products.  The 
manurial  value  is  also  increased.  Leaving  animal  prod- 
ucts before  the  fowls  at  all  times  has  shown  no  evil 
effects,  unless  for  some  particular  purpose  it  has  been 
too  strongly  protein.  Green  bone  may  sour  if  kept  for 
any  length  of  time  in  warm  weather,  but  in  winter  it 
may  be  frozen  and  kept  indefinitely. 

Green-food  values  lie  as  much  in  the  assistance  ren- 


100        Science  axu  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

dered  in  the  digestion  of  other  foods  as  in  their  own 
food  values.  They  add  variety,  a  spice  to  the  appetite, 
and  in  some  mysterious  way  do  wonders  for  the  sys- 
tem. Experiments  which  have  furnished  every  element 
needed  by  the  fowl  or  its  products  without  allowing  ac- 
cess to  green  food  in  any  form  have  proven  the  absolute 
necessity  of  green  food  for  the  best  results.  Some  forms 
of  green  foods  which  are  highly  relished  by  fowls,  such 
as  apples  or  cabbage,  should  be  fed  cautiously  unless 
the  fowls  are  accustomed  to  them.  In  fact  overeating 
on  any  green  food  where  the  fowl  is  unused  to  it  may 
cause  digestive  disturbances.  A  constant  supply  of  any 
green  food  will  avoid  this  danger.  \'ariety  is  preferred 
by  all  fowls. 

Gravel  or  grit  of  any  kind  increases  the  digestibility 
of  certain  forms  of  protein  and  fibre  because  of  the  aid 
it  renders  to  the  digestive  liquids.  The  finer  the  food 
the  more  easily  the  secretions  can  reach  and  act  upon 
them.  Oyster  shells  or  some  form  of  lime  is  sought  for 
by  hens  especially  while  laying.  It  is  estimated  that  one 
pound  of  oyster  shells  will  furnish  lime  enough  for  eight 
dozens  of  eggs.  Some  mineral  matter  is  furnished  in 
grains,  vegetables  and  bone.  Leave  the  choice  of  selec- 
tion to  the  average  hen  and  she  will  choose  some  oyster 
shell,  some  bone  and  always  pick  out  grit  of  the  size 
between  the  grain  of  wheat  and  the  grain  of  com.  In 
short  a  fowl  will  pick  out  the  size  desired  if  given  a 
chance.  Some  authorities  claim  the  grit  is  not  needed  to 
assist  digestion  but  only  for  such  minerals  as  it  may 
furnish,  but  when  those  are  furnished  the  hen  will  still 
choose  to  take  grit.  She  must  be  controlled  by  her  needs 
or  she  is  sadly  devoid  of  the  usual  natural  good  sense  of 
the  dumb  creation.  Charcoal  furnishes  certain  food  ele- 
ments as  well  as  medicinal  properties  corrective  of  intes- 


Foods  and  Feeding  101 

tinal  disturbances.  The  furnishing  of  grit,  oyster  shells 
and  charcoal  of  the  right  size  and  grade,  considering 
the  age  and  breed  of  fowl,  and  where  it  may  be  freely 
obtained  will  be  economy  in  feeding  because  of  their  aid 
and  influence  toward  proper  digestion.  The  preference 
of  fowls  will  not  lead  to  error  in  these  elements.  A  pinch 
of  salt  in  the  rations  occasionally  is  excellent  for  poultry. 

Pure  and  fresh  water  is  a  strong  aid  to  digestion  and 
hence  to  good  assimilation.  Some  breeds  of  fowls  are 
more  dependent  upon  water  than  others,  as  for  example 
the  duck  while  feeding.  A  constant  supply  makes  for 
better  conditions  with  any  kind  of  poultry.  The  amount 
required  by  any  fowl  will  vary  widely  with  the  weather, 
the  humidity  of  the  air,  the  breed  and  physical  condition 
of  the  fowl,  the  nature  of  the  food  given  and  other  fac- 
tors. Snow  is  often  used  and  questions  arise  as  to  the 
use  of  warm  or  cold  water.  These  are  answered  most 
nearly  by  the  statement  that  pure,  fresh  and  a  constant 
supply  of  cool  (not  cold)  water  will  produce  the  best 
results  when  every  other  condition  is  alike.  There  is 
danger  in  disturbing  the  digestive  value  of  water  by  the 
use  of  impure  water,  thereby  creating  diseased  conditions 
and  also  by  allowing  excessive  thirst  to  be  followed  by 
a  liberal  quantity  which  often  results  seriously,  giving 
what  is  known  as  water  colic. 

Table  of  Food  Analysis. 

Of  the  various  substances  used  for  rations  some  have 
higher  values  for  certain  purposes  than  do  others.  Again 
the  same  grains  or  vegetables  may  not  contain  nutritive 
elements  in  exactly  the  same  proportion  where  they  have 
been  grown  in  different  soils  and  under  different  degrees 
of  cultivation.  Climatic  conditions  and  extent  of  matur- 
ity might  also  affect  the  analysis.  Therefore  any  table 
given  may  vary  in  some  degree  from  other  similar  tables 


102 


Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


and  all  be  correct  as  far  as  any  practical  use  is  concerned. 
The  table  following  is  made  up  largely  from  data  the 
credit  for  which  is  due  to  Prof.  James  E.  Rice. 


Food   Supplies. 


Digestible 

Nutrients. 

rt 

Cfl 

ol 

!> 

^ 

S  *^ 

$ 

Q 

<! 

1 

2 

Grain    Products: 

Barley 

Barley    Meal 

Brewer's   Grain,  dried, 
Buckwheat     


I         I 
11 
12 
083 
13 


Buckwheat  Middlings,  .13 


Corn 

Corn    Meal 

Corn   and   Cob   Meal, 

Corn,    Kaffir 

Cottonseed    Meal,    .  . 

Flaxseed 

Gluten   Feed |.08   1 

Gluten    Meal 

Hominy    Chops.     .  .  . 
Linseed  Meal,   O.    P., 

Malt    Sprouts 

Millet 

Oats,     

Oat   Bran 

Oats,    hulled  or  rolled, 1.079 

Oat    Hulls |.10 

.1 

Peas,    ground 

Rice,    

Rye,     

Rye    Bran 

Sorghum    Seed 

Sunflower   Seed 

Wheat,    

Wheat    Bran 

Wheat   Bread,    White, 
Wheat    Middlings,    .  . 

Wheat    Shorts 

Wheat    Screenings,    .. 


.89 

.024 

.00288 

.087 

.SS 

.022 

.00268 

.074 

.917 

.OftH 

.00378 

.168 

,87 

.02 

.00247 

.077 

.87 

.048 

.00256 

.22 

.89 

.015 

.00326 

.079 

89 

(114 

.00302 

.055 

.849 

.01.=^ 

.00287 

.044 

.848 

.013 

.00306 

.085 

.918 

.00371 

.372 

.908 

.043 

.00657 

.206 

Vegetable    Products: 

Alfalfa  Hay,    

Apples,    

Beets,   Sugar 

Beets,  Mangel-wurzel 

Cabbage,     

Carrots 

Clover,   Red 

Clover,    Red,    Hay,    .  . 

Grass,    Green 

Lettuce 

Oats,    Sprouted,*     .  .  . 


92    |. 0111.005211     .19^ 


92 
.159 
135 
13 
15 
114 
71  1.29 


.008 

.00774 

.258 

.025 

.00316 

.075 

056 

.00476 

.289 

.064 

.00341 

.186 

.033 

.00365 

.089 

.03 

.00378 

.092 

.024 

.00289 

.116 

02 

.00421 

.094 

.067 

.00113 

.013 

.026 

.00548 

.168 

.026 

.00548 

.168 

.004 

.00273 

.062 

019 

.0032S 

.099 

.021 

.00208 

.115 

.016 

.00396 

.054 

.026 

.00428 

.121 

.018 

.00426 

.102 

058 

.00618 

.122 

.008 

.00413 

.078 

.038 

.00471 

.128 

042 

.00454 

.122 

.029 

.00462 

.098 

074 

.00431 

.11 

002 

.00009 

.002 

.009 

.00048 

.016 

.011 

.00051 

.011 

.014 

.00082 

.018 

.01 

.00034 

.009 

.021 

.00107 

.029 

.062 

.073 

023 

.00123 

.02 

.008 

.00042 

.01 

.03 

.00379 

.102 

.692 
.668 
.471 
.533 
.456 
.764 
.711 
.665 
.738 
.437 
.752 
.633 
656 
705 
449 
.403 
522 
568 
49 
528 
.415 
.534 
.531 
.62 
.7 

.488 
.668 
.85 
.73 
.453 
,52 
,607 
,586 
.559 


423 
146 
109 
104 
091 
.089 
.164 
.396 
.22 
.02 
.521 


9.3 

2.8 

6.9 

2.1 

10.7 

12.9 

15.1 

8.1 

:  1.2 

3.6 

;  3.3 

2.5 

9.4 

:  1.6 

2.2 

;  5.8 

:  6.2 

:  4.3 

:  5.4 

31.8 

;  3.2 

:  3.2 

10 

;  7.1 
;  4.2 
13.3 
;  7.1 
:  7.2 
:  3.8 
:  7. 
:  4.7 
:  4.8 
;  5.6 


3.8 

72.8 
6.8 
5.1 
5.1 
9.9 
5.6 
5.7 

11 


Foods  and  Feeding 


103 


Potatoes,  .  , 
Rutabagas, 
Turnips,  .  , 
Rape 


1.01    1.000751    .009    |.1G5|1:18.3    |   331 


|.886|. 1141.01    1.000611    .01      ).085|1  :   8.5 

1.905  .095|. 0081.000501    .008    .077|1  :   7.7 
""    .14   1.02    .00092]    .015    .08611:   5.4 


Animal  Products; 
Animal  Meal,  , 
Blood,  dried,  . 
Bugs   and   Worms,    .  .  I 

Buttermilk,    |.918|.082f.007[.01821 

Fish,    dried 1.1081. 8921. 392|. 01772 

Green    Cut    Bone,     .  .  .  |.342|.658|.115.|00912 
Meat     Scraps,     high    I         I         I         I 


|.073|.927|. 1951.0122   |    .32      |.23   fl  : 
|.067[.933|.066|.0163   |     .651      "    " 
Heavy 


grade, 
Millt,   sliimmed,  sweet. 
Milk,    skimmed,    sour. 

Whey,    

Eggs,    less    shells,    .  . 


Miscellaneous  Products 

Charcoal 

Dry    Bone 

Grit 

Oyster   Shell,    ........ 

Old    Mortar 

Water 

Salt    (limited)     


0175 
.00103 
00101 
00124 
.01024 


.028 
.441 
.18 

.642 
.029 
.01 


050 
.232 
43 

.311 
059 
06 
059 
685 


0.7 
0.33 

1.8 
0.5 
5.3 

0.5 

4.5 

6 

7.4 

2.12 


21J 
160 
212 


161 
1390 
1212 

1844 
181 
175 
108 

1908 


*A11   data   depends   upon   character   and    extent   of   sprouts. 

Balancing  Ration.s. 

Upon  a  careful  survey  of  the  above  table  we  find  a 
variet}'  of  foods  and  yet  many  of  which  are  quite  sim- 
ilar in  composition.  To  prepare  a  balanced  ration  not 
only  must  the  elements  be  present  which  will  build  up  the 
entire  product,  but  that  ration  must  be  economical  in 
cost  and  available.  More  important  to  success  is  the 
compounding  of  that  ration  in  such  a  manner  that  variety 
is  assured.  Even  if  one  grain  should  be  a  perfect  ration 
it  would  soon  fail  to  satisfy  the  fowl  and  the  consequent 
loss  would  entirely  be  due  to  the  "  sameness  "  in  food. 
This  variety  may  be  secured  by  mixing  the  different 
foods  or  by  feeding  them  upon  different  days. 

In  forming  a  ration  adapted  for  a  specific  purpose  it 
is  well  to  watch  nature  as  well  as  to  study  the  chemical 
analysis  of  the  product  desired.  Nature  begins  with  a 
narrow  ration.  The  eggs  and  milk  which  furnish  the 
young  their  first  food  are  narrow.  The  former  has  a 
ratio  of  1  :2+  while  the  latter  has  one  of  1  :3+.     Many 


104        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

birds  give  their  young  only  worms  and  bugs,  which  is  an 
extremely  narrow  ration,  yet  the  growth  of  bone,  tiesli 
and  feathers  requires  just  such  elements.  As  they  de- 
velop to  maturity  a  wider  ration  is  approached  since 
growth  ceases  and  now  the  function  of  the  carbohydrates 
is  called  into  play,  that  of  rebuilding  wasted  tissues,  fur- 
nishing heat  and  storing  energy.  If  correct  methods  in 
feeding  are  not  observed  the  fowls  will  be  able  to  adjust 
themselves  more  easily  to  a  narrow  ration  than  to  a 
wide  one,  therefore  errors  should  be  toward  the  narrow 
ration.  Again  an  important  consideration  in  all  rations 
is  to  avoid  getting  one  which  is  too  bulky  or  too  watery 
even  if  the  nutritive  ratio  is  correct.  The  fowl  might 
starve  in  trying  to  get  enough  to  eat  because  the  bulk 
contained  so  small  an  amount  of  real  nutriment. 

The  table  shows  the  proportion  of  water  and  dry  mate- 
rial in  each  food.  It  shows  their  relative  ash  and  their 
manurial  value.  It  shows  the  digestible  nutrients  in  each 
food,  giving  the  protein  and  carbohydrates  and  fats  sep- 
arately and  also  the  ratio  of  the  one  to  the  other,  using 
the  protein  as  a  basis.  It  lastly  shows  the  calories  or 
heat  units  of  each  food.  A  pound  of  digestible  fats  has 
a  heating  power  of  4,220  calories  as  against  a  heating 
power  of  1,860  calories  in  either  the  protein  or  carbo- 
hydrate elements.  Therefore  a  small  amount  of  <ligest- 
ible  fat  in  a  food  raises  its  heating  value.  In  the  table 
the  fats  and  carbohydrates  are  combined  as  they  are  to 
perform  the  same  mission  as  a  food  element.  The  high 
heating  value  of  corn  is  due  to  the  percentage  of  fat 
contained  therein.  The  number  of  calories  is  found  by 
multiplying  the  total  protein  and  carbohydrates  in  a 
pound  of  food  by  1860  and  to  that  result  add  the  digest- 
ible fat  multiplied  by  4220.  Therefore  a  pound  of  wheat 
having  .8152  of  a  pound  of  protein  and  carbohydrates 


Foods  and  Feeding  105 

would  contain '.8152x1860  or  1516.272  calories  of  heat 
power.  The  wheat  also  having  0.168  poiuids  of  fat  we 
would  have  .0168x4220  or  70.896  calories,  making  a  total 
of  1,586  calories  heat  values  for  a  pound  of  wheat, 
protein  and  carbohydrates  would  contain  .8152x1860  or 
1516.272  calories  of  heat  power.  The  wheat  also  having 
.0168  pounds  of  fat  we  would  have  .0168x4220  or  70.896 
calories,  making  a  total  of  1,586  calories  heat  values  for 
a  pound  of  wheat. 

The  nutritive  ratio  of  foods  means  the  proportion  that 
exists  between  the  nitrogenous  or  protein  element  and 
the  non-nitrogenous  or  carbohydrates  and  fats.  Since 
the  fats  are  of  greater  heating  power  they  are  allowed 
2yl  times  their  weight  to  bring  them  upon  a  par  with  the 
other  elements  in  determining  the  ratio.  Therefore  in 
the  table  any  seeming  error  in  ratio  may  be  due  to  this 
cause.  The  ratio  is  found  by  taking  the  protein  element 
as  a  basis  and  finding  the  ratio  the  carbohydrates  and  fats 
bear  to  it.  Corn  is  shown  in  the  table  to  have  .079  weight 
of  protein  and  .764  of  carbohydrates  and  fats,  thus  mak- 
ing a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :10.7,  It  must  also  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  nutritive  ratio  of  two  foods  may  appear 
the  same,  as  is  the  case  with  rye  and  sunflower  seed,  while 
their  food  values  per  pound  is  .799  in  the  one  case  and 
.979  in  the  other.  The  food  values  per  pound  and  the 
nutritive  ratios  need  not  be  similar. 

Understanding  what  is  meant  by  nutritive  ratios  and 
narrow  and  wide  rations  we  now  come  to  the  balancing 
of  rations,  bearing  in  mind  that  variety  is  also  essential 
to  success  in  feeding.  We  find  from  analysis  that  pro- 
tein is  the  strongest  element  in  the  growth  of  the  young 
of  poultry.  We  wish  to  supply  all  the  essentials  in  such 
proportions  as  will  promote  proper  growth.  Therefore 
noting  that  nature  is  inclined  to  give  quite  a  proportion 


106        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

of  protein  in  the  form  of  animal  matter  we  will  heed  the 
lesson.  A  narrow  ration  is  any  proportion  of  1 :5.  or 
less  and  the  needs  of  the  growing  stock  several  weeks  old 
require  a  ration  of  about  1 :3.5.  Consulting  the  table  and 
considering  our  ability  to  obtain  foods  at  a  reasonable 
cost  we  compile  the  following: 

Carbohydrates  Nutritive 

Protein,  and    Fats.  Ratio. 

2  lbs.  Cracked  corn    158  1.528  1:10.7 

2  lbs.  Wheat     204  1.46  1 :  7.2 

2  lbs.  Red   clover    058  .328  1:5.6 

Va  lb.     Millet    022  .13  1:  5.8 

3/2  lb.     Mangel-wurzel    005  .052  1:5.1 

141b.     Oatmeal    024  '        .132  1:6.2 

1  lb.     Meat  scraps   642  .321  1 :  0.5 

8  lbs.  food     ~. 1.113  3.951  1:3.5 

For  all  practical  purposes  we  will  ignore  the  fats 
(which  assist  ordinarily  in  determining  the  ratio)  and 
divide  the  total  protein  into  the  total  carbohydrates  and 
fats,  thus  giving  us  the  ratio  needed  and  a  ration  whicii 
contains  a  variety  of  foods.  If  we  wish  it  for  very 
young  poultry  a  ratio  of  1 :2  could  easily  be  obtained  by 
increasing  the  animal  element  and  lessening  the  grain. 
If  intended  for  laying  stock  a  ratio  of  1 :4.5  could  be  ob- 
tained by  increasing  the  grain  somewhat.  If  for  fatten- 
ing a  wide  ration  which  is  1  :6  or  above  is  used,  it  is 
easily  obtained  by  giving  corn  the  preference  in  the 
ration.  Specific  ratios  and  rations  for  specific  purposes 
will  be  taken  up  later  on  in  the  chapter.  Enough  has 
been  given  to  assist  one  in  forming  correct  rations  by 
understanding  the  needs  of  the  fowl  and  conforming  his 
selections  thereto. 

As  to  the  value  of  cooked  foods,  generally  starchy 
foods  are  bettered  by  cooking  while  the  protein  foods  are 
made  less  digestible.  Also  potiltry  prefer  most  vegetables 
in   the    raw    state.      Cooking   potatoes    and   turnips   and 


Foods  and  Feedixg  107 

steaming  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  is  a  desirable  practice. 

Besides  the  general  appearance  of  the  fowl  and  noting 
the  results  obtained  one  can  judge  fairly  well  of  the 
ration  by  close  observation  of  the  droppings.  When 
normal  and  the  product  of  health  and  a  proper  ration 
they  will  be  of  enough  consistency  to  hold  shape  yet  not 
too  solid;  their  color  will  be  rather  dark,  yet  at  the  tap- 
ering end  the  color  will  be  of  greyish-white  which  an- 
swers to  the  urine  discharge  in  animals.  A  soft  pasty 
yellow  indicates  too  much  carbohydrates,  a  watery  mucus 
too  much  or  too  little  meat  elements,  and  a  thin  greenish 
discharge  usually  is  due  to  filthy  and  diseased  conditions. 
Time,  Manner  and  Amounts  in  Feeding  Various 
Classes  of  Poultry. 

The  time,  manner  and  amounts  in  feeding  various 
classes  of  poultry  depend  upon  the  age,  breed,  condition 
and  purpose  of  the  fowls  as  well  as  the  climate  and 
the  range  enjoyed  by  them.  Their  early  morning  hun- 
ger should  be  appeased,  not  allowed  to  become  entirely 
hungry  during  the  day,  compelled  to  take  proper  exer- 
cise and  be  entirely  satisfied  before  going  upon  the  roosts 
at  night.  Each  individual  flock  or  fowl  presents  a  sep- 
arate problem  which  requires  individual  and  original 
judgment  to  handle  well.  After  noting  the  meaning  of 
dry.  mash  and  hopper  feeding  the  needs  of  the  various 
periods  of  a  fowl's  life  will  be  considered. 

Dry  feeding  consists  in  feeding  either  whole  or  pre- 
pared foods  in  a  dry  form.  A  mixture  of  ground  ingre- 
dients is  often  referred  to  as  a  dr\^  mash.  The  advan- 
tages of  a  dry  mash  or  dr}'  feeding  lie  in  the  lessened 
labor  and  the  almost  total  elimination  of  bowel  trouble 
caused  by  sour  or  sloppy  food,  or  filthy  utensils.  Grain 
is  usually  fed  in  litter,  dry  mash  in  hoppers  or  wire- 
covered  pans,  vegetables  in  hoppers  and  animal  foods  in 


108        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

hoppers,  pans  or  in  the  dry  mash.  Grit,  oyster  shell  and 
charcoal  are  usually  hopper-fed.  Water  is  best  given  in 
founts  and  raised  above  the  floor  Htter  and  filth. 

Mash  feeding  or  wet-mash  feeding  is  relished  by  poul- 
try, but  care  must  be  exercised  in  its  use.  It  may  be 
mixed  with  milk,  whey  or  water.  No  mash  should  be 
mixed  wet  or  sloppy,  but  so  that  it  is  crumbly.  It  is  well 
agreed  that  poultry  do  better  on  raw  mash  than  they 
do  when  it  is  cooked.  In  wet-mash  feeding  the  fowls 
should  have  only  what  they  can  eat  up  clean  in  ten  or  fif- 
teen minutes,  the  residue  being  removed.  At  what  time 
a  day  to  feed  mash  for  the  best  results  is  a  disputed  ques- 
tion. Some  claim  that  the  morning  mash  gives  them  a 
quick  and  easy  meal  while  their  vitality  is  low ;  others 
that  it  leads  to  inactivity.  Those  favoring  night  mashes 
are  met  with  the  objection  that  it  wall  not  last  a  sufficient 
length  of  time  to  avert  undue  hunger  in  the  morning. 
The  noon  feeding  is  open  to  neither  of  these  objections 
and  is  gaining  rapidly  in  favor.  It  must  not  be  supposed 
that  mash  feeding  alone  will  be  beneficial.  Some  whole 
grain  should  also  be  fed  to  induce  exercise  and  give  the 
gizzard  and  the  digestive  organs  their  normal  functions 
to  perform. 

Hopper  feeding  consists  of  keeping  constantly  before 
the  fowls  a  quantity  of  grain  or  other  food  for  their 
use  as  they  may  desire  it.  Some  advocate  the  separate 
hopper  feeding  of  all  foods,  leaving  it  to  the  fowl  to 
choose  its  needs.  Their  preferences  will  enter  largely 
at  this  point  to  the  utter  exclusion  of  some  grains  and 
thereby  the  cost  element  may  run  too  high  or  the  pur- 
pose for  which  the  fowls  are  desired  may  be  defeated. 
Hopper  feeding  for  growing  stock  and  for  laying  stock 
of  the  lighter  breeds  is  extensively  practiced.    A  hopper- 


Foods  and  Feeding  109 

fed  fowl  will  not  gorge  itself  as  does  one  not  accus- 
tomed to  the  sight  of  undevoured  food. 

The  infant  fowl  usually  has  absorbed  enough  of  the 
egg  food  to  sustain  it  properly  for  a  period  of  from  one 
to  three  days.  If  allowed  to  gorge  itself  during  this 
period  it  becomes  overtaxed  and  death  is  the  usual  result. 
Kindness  has  too  often  been  cruelty  during  this  period. 
Some  successful  breeders  begin  feeding  a  small  amount 
of  food  five  times  daily ;  the  first  time  at  sunrise,  the  last 
at  sunset.  At  this  place  it  is  well  to  state  that  the  ideal 
time  for  all  morning  poultry  feeding  is  at  sunrise.  Other 
breeders  feed  once  the  second  day,  twice  the  third  day 
and  thereafter  at  the  regular  times.  The  first  few  days 
the  average  breeder  feeds  little  but  often.  Four  and  five 
times  daily  seem  to  be  the  usual  number,  usually  in  a 
clean,  sweet  place  or  receptacle  if  of  a  mash  nature, 
or  in  litter  if  in  the  form  of  chick-food.  The  amount 
during  this  period  should  be  only  what  will  be  eaten  in 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  All  that  is  left  should  be  re- 
moved unless  it  is  in  litter  and  the  operator  must  act 
according  to  the  amount  needed,  giving  the  fowls  plenty 
of  time  to  obtain  it  from  the  litter.  Keep  the  young- 
sters just  a  little  hungry.  The  main  secret  of  successful 
feeding  of  infant  fowls  lies  entirely  in  the  ability  of  the 
operator  to  resist  heavy  feeding  and  improper  foods  for 
the  first  few  days  and  in  keeping  them  ever  ready  for 
another  meal. 

Now  comes  the  growing  period  wdien  the  purpose  for 
which  the  fowl  is  intended  enters  somewhat.  The  time 
of  feeding  is  usually  reduced  to  three  or  four  times 
daily,  depending  upon  the  weather  and  amount  of  range 
given.  The  amount  and  manner  here  become  important. 
The  food  being  balanced  for  a  particular  purpose  may 
or  mav  not  fit  the  fowl  for  the  future  intended.     If  so 


110        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

then  the  problem  is  simple  anrl  the  manner  only  is  im- 
portant. Mash,  dry  feeding,  and  hopper  feeding  are  all 
practiced  successfully  during  this  period ;  but  the  proper 
amount  of  exercise,  either  by  range,  nature,  or  induce- 
ment, is  absolutely  essential.  If  not  only  growth  but 
forced  flesh  or  fat  is  the  object  then  the  problem  becomes 
one  of  the  amount  of  food  given  with  as  little  exercise 
as  will  accomplish  the  result. 

The  last  mentioned  problem  becomes  the  fattening 
period  and  the  ration,  time,  manner  and  method  may 
vary  widely  from  a  growing  treatment.  The  growth  and 
fattening  of  young  or  the  fattening  of  adult  fowls  re- 
quires a  ration  which  by  reason  of  its  purpose  is  a  tax 
on  the  digestive  system  and  should  not  be  begun  until 
such  time  as  the  process  will  be  completed  and  the  pur- 
pose attained  before  deterioration  or  evil  can  result. 
Great  care  is  exercised  during  this  period  to  avoid  cloyed 
appetites.  In  crate  or  pen  fattening  the  feeding  is  often 
done  every  three  or  four  hours  day  and  night  during 
the  finishing  days.  The  growing  and  fattening  periods 
are  sometimes  not  separated  by  growers  who  believe  that 
the  extra  labor  and  food  are  not  repaid  in  the  finishing 
process.  Many  broiler,  roaster  and  green-duck  growers 
are  of  this  mind.  Mash  feeding  is  prevalent  among 
green-duck  and  goose  growers,  and  to  an  equal  extent 
among  other  poultry  raisers.  Where  special  fattening  is 
not  employed  food  is  given  three  times  daily. 

The  adult  period  for  laying,  breeding  or  show-room 
purposes  each  requires  a  ration  fitted  for  its  needs.  The 
time  is  less  vital  unless  under  close  confinement.  Sunrise, 
noon  and  sunset  are  observed  by  many,  while  hopper 
feeding  of  certain  breeds  is  used  exclusively.  The  heav- 
ier breeds  will  not  thrive  so  well  under  hopper  feeding 
unless  voung  and  on   wide   range.      Some  laying  fowls 


Foods  and  Feeding  111 

do  well  by  being-  fed  only  twice  a  day.  Circumstances 
govern  this  point  and  by  a  close  watchfulness  and  atten- 
tion any  method  will  give  a  degree  of  success  with  com- 
mercial laying  stock.  Mash  or  dry  feeding  will  bring 
results,  but  breeding  and  showroom  stock  produce  bet- 
ter results  on  dry  rations  given  in  lesser  quantities  and 
three  times  daily.  Exercise  and  vigor  are  essential  in  all 
three  classes.  Many  who  feel  unable  to  get  to  the  birds 
so  early  in  the  morning  scatter  some  grain  at  night  after 
the  fowls  are  upon  the  roost  and  thus  give  them  an 
advantage  until  the  regular  feeding  time.  The  objection 
raised  that  a  few  early  risers  obtain  an  undue  proportion 
is  met  by  the  argument  that  such  birds  are  usuall\-  the 
real  producers  and  need  what  extra  they  get.  This 
method  is  also  used  in  cold  weather  by  many  with  splen- 
did results.  The  amount  given  adults  varies  because  of 
many  factors  already  suggested  and  the  guide  must  be 
largely  the  operator's  judgment,  ^^'hatis  eaten  up  clean, 
the  condition  of  the  fowl  and  the  results  will  show  how 
well  that  judgment  is  exercised. 

Specific   Rations  and  Treatment   for   Specific 
Purposes. 

In  feeding  poultry  common  sense  is  the  greatest  asset 
an  operator  can  have.  Fresh  air  and  sweet,  wholesome 
foods  are  both  essential.  Cooked  foods  are  not  product- 
ive of  best  results  except  such  vegetables  as  are  very 
starchy  by  nature  or  unless  disease  germs  are  to  be  killed. 
It  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  that  variety  of  food, 
regardless  of  the  fact  that  one  or  two  foods  may  be  a 
balanced  ration,  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  best  results. 
There  must  be  the  grain,  the  green  vegetable,  the  ani- 
mal and  the  mineral  in  all  rations  as  well  as  a  good 
water  supply.     Many  feed  fairly  well  in  every  respect, 


112        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

but  in  supplying  the  animal  element,  which  is  really  the 
most  vital  for  good  results.  Regularity  in  feeding  is  also 
important  but  often  disregarded.  What  is  attempted  un- 
der this  heading  is  to  arouse  the  operator  to  see  that  no 
set  ration  can  be  given  because  the  local  conditions  of 
both  climate  and  the  poultry  themselves,  their  breed,  their 
purpose  and  many  other  items  enter  which  must  be  con- 
sidered. If  it  is  cold  weather  or  in  a  northern  country 
the  fat  or  heat-forming  element  must  be  supplied  in  a 
more  liberal  quantity,  or  if  in  a  warm  climate  it  should 
be  reduced.  No  writing  within  the  limits  of  one  work 
could  begin  to  define  a  correct  ration  suited  to  each  indi- 
vidual case.  What  is  given  is  a  sample  ration  showing 
how  formed  and  each  may  add  or  substitute  what  is  best 
suited  and  most  available  for  the  needs  at  hand.  Nor 
is  any  specified  breed  of  poultry  herein  considered,  be- 
cause under  the  proper  chapters  are  treated  any  special 
foods  or  methods  of  feeding  special  to  pigeons,  ducks, 
geese,  pheasants  or  other  fowl  being  discussed.  These 
rations  will  therefore  be  applicajble  generally. 

Method  of  Sprouting  Oats. 
A  so  called  "  perfect "'  poultry  food  at  an  excep- 
tionally low  cost  consists  of  sprouted  oats.  Dry  oats 
properly  moistened  and  allowed  to  germinate  make  an 
excellent  poultry  food,  cheap,  nutritious  and  highly  rel- 
ished by  all  poultry.  A  bushel  of  oats  will  sprout  to  three 
or  four  times  its  original  volume.  It  stimulates  egg  pro- 
duction yet  is  open  to  the  objection  that  one  food  is  not 
able  to  satisfy  or  keep  a  fowl  in  good  order,  all  opinions 
to  the  contrary  notwithstanding.  Any  good  idea  may  be 
carried  to  extremes.  When  fed  once  a  day  to  laying 
stock  and  in  somewhat  limited  quantities  to  breeding 
stock  it  becomes  a  valuable  and  inexpensive  food.     The 


Foods  and  Feeding  113 

sprouting  process  is  simple.  The  oats  are  soaked  for  a 
day  in  water  from  which  the  chill  has  been  taken.  Next 
pour  them  into  shallow  troughs  or  racks  or  even  on  a 
floor  which  will  allow  the  excess  water  to  escape.  They 
should  not  be  more  than  two  or  three  inches  deep. 
Sprinkle  twice  daily  with  warm  water.  In  a  few  days, 
the  time  depending  upon  the  temperature  of  the  room, 
the  rootlets  will  appear  and  the  green  shoots  show  them- 
selves. If  they  are  intended  for  small  fowls  they  may  be 
used  at  this  stage,  but  if  desired  they  may  be  left  for 
several  days  while  a  portion  are  being  used.  A  daily 
stirring  after  the  sprouts  begin  to  appear  will  keep  the 
mass  growing  uniformly.  The  fowls  will  relish  this  green 
food  and  while  it  is  called  the  cheapest  complete  ration 
in  existence  yet  that  is  not  truly  a  practical  claim.  Sugar 
beet  pulp  is  also  used  in  some  localities. 

Growing  Rations — There  are  countless  modes  of  feed- 
ing the  wee  fowls,  but  it  is  a  safe  rule  to  allow  nature 
to  supply  all  food  by  yolk  absorption  during  the  first 
thirty-six  or  forty-eight  hours.  For  the  next  three  or 
four  days  feed  often  but  very  little  each  time.  Keep 
them  hungry.  A  few  begin  at  once  on  a  mixed  grain 
diet  with  greens  and  meat  food  fed  sparingly.  Grit  and 
water  in  plenty  are  given.  Bright,  attractive  grit  must 
be  fed  in  small  quantities  at  first  since  many  chickens 
fail  to  understand  its  real  nature  until  they  are  a  few 
days  old.  The  food  fed  to  growing  stock  is  intended 
to  form  bone,  muscle  and  feathers,  so  never  urge  upon 
}oung  fowls  flesh  and  fat-forming  foods.  Bread  and 
cracker  crumbs,  hard-boiled  egg  and  a  little  of  a  dry- 
grain  chick-food  ration  given  hereafter  would  do  nicely. 
If  these  are  moistened  in  any  way  let  it  be  sparingly. 
The  first  week  is  the  important  week. 

After  the   first   week   or   even   before   the    following 


114        SciKXCE  ANM)  Art  of  Poultkv  Cui.turk 

rations  are  successfully  used.     The  srowint^  ration  must 
be  a  narrow  one. 

Tabic  Shozciiig  the  Ingredients  of  lOO  Pounds  of  Grozi'- 

ing  Rations  Used  By  Leading  Ponltrynien 

for  Wet  or  Dry  Mashes. 

Foods 

1 

Cornmeal     15 

Wheat,  ground   25 

Wheat    middhng    15 

Shorts   or   low-grade   llour 

Oats,    ground    13 

Oatmeal     

Buckwheat    middling    5 

Linseed   meal    5 

Animal    meal     

Beef  scrap    10 

Potaotes    cooked    5 

Clover   hay   cut   fine 5 

Alfalfa   hay  cut   fine 

Fine    grit     5 

Charcoal    2 


■1 

:? 

4 

2U 

30 

30 

35 

35 

40 

1:4 


1:5.1 


1:4 


Approximate  nutrition  ratios,  1:3.5 
Table  Showing  the  Ingredients  of  loo  Pounds  of  Grow- 
ing Rations  Used  by  Leading  Ponltrynien 
for  JVhole-Grain  Feeding. 

Food.s 

1  2  3 

Corn,    cracked     

Wheat,    cracked    

Rice,    cracked    

Oats,  steel  cut  } 

Oats,  rolled        S     

Millet    seed    

Beef  scrap    


20 
50 

25 
35 

28 
45 

15 

20 

10 

5 
10 

10 
10 

5 
12 

1:4.5 


1 :4.4         1 :4.2 


Approximate  nutritive  ratios,  .  . 

Proper  substitutions  are  easily  made  in  both  tables  and 
grit,  oyster  shell,  charcoal,  and  water  should  be  con- 
stantly before  all  fowls  after  the  first  few  days.  Use 
care  in  beginning-  and  increasing  the  green  foods  not 
found  on  the  ransfe,  since  bowel  trouble  niav  result.    For 


Foods  and  FKKniNG  115 

the  first  few  days  give  less  meat  food  and  increase  slowly 
until  about  ten  per  cent  is  given.  If  the  young  fowls  are 
on  range  they  may  not  need  even  that  much.  Do  not 
give  an  all-mash  ration.  Compel  exercise.  For  such  as 
are  intended  for  breeders  a  preponderence  or  even  an 
all-whole  grain  ration  is  better  when  approaching  ma- 
turity. Also  a  little  wider  ration  will  hold  back  early 
laying  and  insure  better  development.  If  intended  for 
market  the  fattening  ration  may  begin  at  the  proper 
time.  Hopper  feeding  on  range  is  often  successfully 
adopted. 

Laying  Rations — The  laying  hen  or  "  egg  machine  " 
must  receive  nutriment  which  will  supply  a  right  propor- 
tion of  not  only  protein  and  carbohydrates  but  also  min- 
eral matter  in  abundance.  The  output  of  eggs  is  to  be 
considered  and  even  more  important  is  the  constant 
repair  of  the  "  machine "  itself.  The  composition  and 
structure  of  both  the  egg  and  the  fowl  are  given  else- 
where should  one  care  to  investigate  this  point  in  order 
to  make  more  intelligent  studv.  The  average  egg  is  11 
per  cent  shell,  32  per  cent  yolk  and  57  per  cent  white. 
The  shell  is  nearly  all  carbonate  of  lime.  The  yolk  is 
one-half  water,  16  per  cent  protein,  33  per  cent  carbo- 
hydrates and  fats  and  1  per  cent  mineral.  The  white  is 
86^  per  cent  water,  12  per  cent  protein,  and  lyz  per  cent 
fat,  minerals  and  other  substances.  The  total  egg  there- 
fore requires  a  properly  balanced  narrow  food  or  a  hen 
must  cease  laying.  The  following  rations  are  used  ex- 
tensively and  others  may  be  formed  readily  by  a  study  of 
the  table : 


116 


Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


Tabic  SJiozviiig  the  Ingredients  of  wo  Pounds  of  Layitig 
Rations  as  Used  on  Five  Leading  Egg  Farms. 


Foods 

1 

Cracked   corn    

Corn   meal    28 

Wheat,    ground    35 

Wheat    middlings     .  .  . 

Wheat    bran     

Oats,    ground     

Linseed    meal    

Buckwheat    middlings. 

Barley,    ground     

Alfalfa  hay  cut 

Clover    hay    cut 15 

Potatoes,   boiled   

Animal  meal    

Beef  scrap    10 

Bone,  green  cut, 

Skim    milk    12 

Approximate  nutritive 
ratios    1:4.3 


20 


3 

4 

5 

10 

10 

25 

15 

20 

30 

20 

3 

8 

14 

30 

20 

5 

10 
10 
15 

io 

'5 

io 

io 

20 

1:5.4         1:5.3 


1:4.3 


1:3.8 


The  ponltrymen  using  the  above  formulas  keep  con- 
stantly before  the  fowls  a  liberal  supply  of  oyster  shells, 
grit,  charcoal,  water  and  green  food  in  some  form.  They 
also  put  a  small  amount  of  salt  in  the  mash  when  fed. 
The  rations  given  are  sometimes  given  in  dry  mash,  hop- 
per-fed, sometimes  in  wet  mash  form  and  all  of  the  men 
take  some  one  of  the  grain  elements  out  and  feed  it  whole 
in  litter.  This  is  easily  done  by  having  all  grains  ground 
separately  and  mixing  them  each  week,  keeping  out  a 
portion  of  the  grain  to  feed  whole.  Wheat  in  the  morn- 
ing and  corn  at  night  in  the  winter  with  a  wet  mash  at 
noon  is  popular.  The  lighter  breeds  are  frequently  fed 
dry  mash  in  hoppers.  Other  grains  may  be  substituted 
if  desired.  Remember  that  the  narrower  the  ration  the 
more  it  tends  to  force  egg  production  and  therefore  when 
fertility  of  eggs  is  desired  a  little  wider  ration  should  be 
given.    The  last  ration  given  in  the  table  is  rather  narrow 


Foods  and  Feeding  '        117 

for  a  prolonged   ration,  yet   is  giving  excellent  success 
with  many. 

Maintenance  Ration — Sometimes  there  is  occasion  to 
wish  a  ration  for  adult  fowls  which  is  merely  to  hold 
them  in  their  present  condition.  Theoretically  the  follow- 
ing ration  should  attain  that  result  if  fed  sparingly  as 
need  rec|uires  since  it  is  based  upon  the  analysis  of  a 
fowl.  However  in  practice  it  may  not  always  be  of  value. 
By  weight  this  ration  would  be : 

Cracked  corn,  24  pounds. 

Corn  meal,  24  pounds. 

Ground  oats,  12  pounds. 

Wheat  middlings,  20  pounds. 

Clover  hay,  12  pounds. 

Fresh  bone,  5  pounds. 

Meat  scrap,  3  pounds. 
The  approximate  nutritive  ratio  of  this  ration  would 
be  1 :6.    The  oyster  shell,  grit,  charcoal,  water  and  green 
vegetables  are  hopper-fed. 

Breeding  Period — For  the  highest  fertility  and  general 
vitality  of  the  egg  germ  the  ration  used  for  laying  stock 
with  a  slight  reduction  in  the  corn  and  meat  elements  and 
a  corresponding  increase  in  the  wheat  elements  makes 
an  excellent  ration.  Wet  mashes  are  better  avoided  un- 
less it  be  for  an  occasional  relish.  Also  a  greater  pro- 
portion of  hard  grain  with  plenty  of  enforced  exercise  is 
necessary  for  best  results.  It  is  desired  to  compel  perfect 
eggs  in  lesser  quantities  so  that  stronger  vitality  will  be 
procured. 

Fattening  Rations — The  wider  ration  is  now  necessary 
to  allow  an  excess  of  heat  and  repair  material  to  be  ac- 
cumulated in  the  form  of  fat.  Food  elements  containing 
a  large  content  of  starch  or  fat  or  both  are  therefore 
desirable  so  that  there  may  be  no  undue  tax  placed  on 


118        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

the  digestive  system.  Very  few  grains  are  better  adapted 
for  fattening  than  is  corn.  Following  are  given  three 
rations  often  used  either  in  mash  form  or  otherwise. 
Mash  or  ground  feedstuffs  are  easier  digested  and  give 
quicker  returns  than  when  fed  in  whole  form.  Exercise 
of  the  digestive  organs  is  not  considered  since  the  fatten- 
ing process  is  one  usually  leading  to  the  market  place. 

Tabic  Sliozviiig  tlie  Ingredients  of  loo  Pounds  of  Fatten- 
ing Rations  as  Used  Extensively. 

Foods 

12  3 

Corn   meal    50  35             45 

Wheat  middlings    30  20            20 

Low-grade  flour   . .             10 

Buckwheat    10 

Oats,    ground    10  10             10 

Potatoes,  boiled    10 

Alfalfa  hay . .               5 

Clover  hay    5  5 

Animal  meal    . .               5 

Beef  scraps    5 

Skim   milk    10 

Approximate  nutritive  ratios,    1:6         1:7.6  1:6 

The  fattening  rations  being  wide  and  fed  to  promote 
rapid  growth  should  be  supported  by  grit,  shell,  water 
and  charcoal.  Vegetables  in  reasonable  quantities  should 
be  given.  Care  must  be  exercised  to  avoid  cloying  the 
appetite  and  all  food  not  consumed  within  a  reasonable 
time  should  be  removed.  Yellow  or  white  corn  or  buck- 
wheat may  be  used  to  govern  the  color  of  the  flesh. 
These  rations  may  easily  be  made  wider  if  one  desires  or 
if  to  fatten  growing  stock  a  little  more  meat  may  be 
given  with  excellent  results. 

Molting  Rations — The  object  of  these  rations  is  to  sup- 
ply the  fowl  with  foods  best  adapted  to  producing  new 
plumage.  Experience  proves  that  linseed  meal,  hemp 
seed  or  sunflower  seed  in  the  ration,  with  a  liberal  supply 


Foods  and  Feeding  119 

of  mineral  food,  gives  excellent  results.  Therefore  to  a 
laying  ration  of  100  pounds  add  10  pounds  of  either  of 
the  above  named  foods  for  a  limited  period  and  see  that 
the  fowls  are  liberally  supplied  with  plenty  of  green 
foods,  especially  clover.  This  will  make  a  rich  ration  and 
must  be  carefully  fed  so  that  it  will  cause  no  disarrange- 
ment of  the  digestive  organs.  When  the  molt  is  about 
completed  go  back  to  the  normal  rations. 


Chapter  IX. 
COXDUCTIXG  AX  EGG  FARM. 

This  ever-important  subject  is  covered  to  a  large  ex- 
tent by  other  chapters  of  this  work,  yet  because  of  its 
widespread  interest  it  is  deemed  justifiable  to  direct  the 
study  to  the  various  sources  of  information  in  order  that 
even  the  novice  will  be  able  to  glean  something  of  value 
therefrom.  By  this  method  needless  repetition  may  be 
avoided. 

After  studying  the  introductory  chapter  the  question 
still  arises,  "  Will  it  pay  to  conduct  an  egg  farm  for 
purely  commercial  purposes?"  To  meet  this  honestly 
requires  many  conditions  to  the  answer,  but  when  forced 
to  a  definite  reply  the  unequivocal  answer  would  be  that 
"  it  does  pay  "  and  pay  well.  It  would  be  strange  indeed 
if  the  millions  spent  annually  for  eggs  were  purchasing  a 
product  which  gave  a  loss  rather  than  a  gain  to  the  pro- 
ducers. It  would  be  more  strange  if  there  were  no  fail- 
ures in  the  egg-farm  business,  since  in  no  line  of  em- 
ployment and  investment  do  so  many  "  incompetents  " 
enter  annually.  Lack  of  knowledge,  lax  business  meth- 
ods, and  inability  to  profit  by  mistakes  will  ruin  any  un- 
dertaking and  egg- farming  requires  just  as  much  fore- 
sight and  business  acumen  as  does  any  mercantile  busi- 
ness. Yet  in  the  face  of  that  thousands  of  men  and 
women  are  constantly  making  splendid  profits  from  the 
laying  hen. 

A  reasonable  profit  per  hen  upon  an  egg-farm  or  in 
the  back  Aard  of  a  city  lot  is  often  the  subject  of  much 

120 


COXDUCTING   AX   Ec.G   FaRM  121 

discussion.  The  g'eneral  consensus  of  opinion  places  the 
average  profit,  not  counting  labor,  as  one  dollar  per 
hen  per  annum.  This  limit  is  often  exceeded  because  of 
local  conditions,  but  large  farms  are  satisfied  with  an 
average  profit  as  stated.  Fruit  and  gardening  often  com- 
bine well  with  an  egg-farm  and  increase  the  profits  to 
quite  an  extent. 

The  secret  of  successful  egg-farming  is  not  difficult 
of  solution.  Volumes  could  be  written  upon  this  sub- 
ject, but  there  are  six  principal  essentials  which  consti- 
tute success  and  which  are :  A  reasonable  location,  a 
productive  fowl,  proper  and  economical  feedstufifs,  ade- 
quate yet  inexpensive  housing,  intelligent  general  care 
and  a  properly-marketed  product.  These  will  be  taken 
up  briefly  in  their  order  and  in  the  entire  discussion  it 
is  assumed  that  an  earnest,  intelligent  person  is  to  be  at 
the  helm  guiding  aright  as  his  knowledge  and  experience, 
combined  with  common  sense,  may  dictate. 

The  location  of  an  egg-farm  is  not  very  material  unless 
one  is  perfectly  free  to  choose,  since  with  rapid  trans- 
portation and  many  other  modern  advantages  almost  any 
location  may  be  utilized.  Ever)-  country  has  its  draw- 
backs and  also  its  advantages.  Nearness  to  large  cities 
oflfers  a  better  private  market,  but  the  investment  is  often 
increased  and  sometimes  feedstuffs  are  also  higher.  In 
this  connection  read  the  early  portion  of  the  chapter  on 
"  Poultry  Houses,  Fixtures,  Fences  and  Yards." 

The  productive  fowl  is  the  result  of  careful  thought 
and  not  an  accident.  The  better  egg-farmers  are  as  care- 
ful of  the  source  of  their  stock  as  is  the  breeder  of  show 
birds.  In  this  connection  one  needs  to  consider  the  breed 
and  strain  of  fowl,  its  breeding  as  well  as  its  age  and 
condition. 


122        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

The  breed  chosen  for  purely  eg:g  production  will  often 
differ  accordingly  as  one's  fancy  or  liking  exists  for  a 
particular  breed.  It  is  a  fact  that  many  strains  of  any 
breed  are  excellent  egg  producers  under  right  treatment. 
However,  the  majority  of  all  large  egg- farms  keep  the 
Mediterranean  breeds.  They  are  smaller  in  size  than  the 
average  hen,  are  more  nervous  and  active,  lay  an  attract- 
ive white  egg  and  average  a  greater  number  each  year 
than  is  averaged  by  the  heavier  varieties  except  in  cer- 
tain strains.  The  American  breeds  are  the  next  in  popu- 
larity. The  Mediterranean  breeds  are  not  so  easily  put 
out  of  condition  by  overfeeding  and  are  capable  of  being 
hopper-fed  to  a  large  extent,  which  is  not  so  true  of 
heavier  breeds.  This  point  is  valuable  only  as  it  affects 
the  labor-cost.  The  single  comb  White  Leghorn  at  pres- 
ent leads  all  varieties  in  the  numbers  kept  for  purely  com- 
mercial egg  production. 

The  strains  of  any  variety  may  differ  more  widely  in 
egg  production  than  the  average  difference  that  exists  in 
breed.  Like  any  other  form  of  animal  life  a  continuous 
and  intelligent  selection  results  in  breeding  from  the  best 
producers  and  therefore  the  strain  is  continually  built  up. 
Some  method  of  selecting  the  best-laying  hens  must  be 
adopted  and  a  careful  reading  of  the  chapter  on  "  Five 
Methods  of  Selecting  the  Laying  Hen  "  may  be  of  much 
assistance.  The  trap  nest  is  almost  a  necessity  unless 
one's  flock  is  so  small  that  a  close  acquaintance  is  formed 
with  each  individual  bird. 

The  breeding  of  an  egg  "  machine  "  should  be  just  as 
careful  as  in  any  other  line  of  poultry,  for  every  egg 
laid  above  the  number  it  takes  to  raise  and  maintain 
a  bird  is  just  that  much  clear  profit.  The  principles 
given  in  the  chapter  on  "  Practical  Principles  of  Breed- 
ing and  the  Management  of  Breeding  Stock  "  apply  to 


Conducting  an  Egg  Farm  123 

the  breeding  of  laying  hens.  The  aim  is  eggs  and 
then  more  eggs.  The  hne-breeding  and  proper  rec- 
ords therefor  are  vital  to  strain-improvement.  Always 
discard  all  stock  which  is  slow  to  mature,  which 
is  late  hatched,  which  shows  any  abnormal  tendencies 
and  which  does  not  lay  an  egg  which  may  be  classed 
as  an  extra  fancy  when  fresh.  There  is  a  laying  type  in 
hens  of  any  variety  and  by  a  study  of  the  egg-type  and 
by  selecting  the  normal  layers  a  strain  can  be  built  up 
rapidly.  Use  caution  in  line-breeding  and  if  possible 
keep  the  strain  strong  and  vigorous.  It  is  better  to  select 
the  strong,  vigorous  layers  of  the  first  year  to  use  as 
breeders  for  the  second  year,  but  allow  them  to  rest  dur- 
ing the  fall  and  winter  so  that  the  breeding  season  may 
find  them  fully  recovered  from  the  forcing  of  their  first 
year  and  the  vitality  and  fertility  of  their  eggs  such  that 
a  strong,  vigorous  hatch  may  be  expected.  Where  one 
buys  all  his  new  stock  each  year  as  is  done  on  some 
farms  care  must  be  exercised  to  get  only  properly-bred, 
well-shaped  and  fully-matured  young  hens.  So  much 
danger  exists  with  diseased  breeding  stock  and  careless 
raising  that  many  who  do  not  care  to  raise  their  own 
stock  have  certain  farmers  raise  the  required  number 
each  year  from  a  known-foundation  blood.  In  this  way 
better  success  is  assured.  The  price  paid  for  pullets  of 
the  proper  grade  varies  from  fifty  cents  to  one  dollar. 
For  commercial  purposes  one  cannot  aflFord  to  pay  more 
than  that  and  reap  a  reasonable  profit  for  himself. 

The  age  of  a  fowl  for  the  best  results  financially  as 
an  egg  producer  is  the  subject  of  considerable  discussion. 
It  is  conceded  that  when  thev  have  passed  two  years  of 
maturity  they  are  no  longer  profitable  as  layers.  The 
second  year  of  the  Mediterranean  breeds  and  of  certain 
strains  are  often  quite  productive  if  the  first  year  has 


124        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

not  been  forced.  The  first  }car  is  usually  claimed  to  be 
the  most  profitable  year  with  at  least  ten  per  cent  more 
eggs  than  during  the  second  }ear  under  similar  condi- 
tions. The  practice  upon  many  Leghorn  egg-farms  is  to 
keep  the  yearling  hens  until  they  begin  to  fall  off  in  egg- 
production  in  the  spring  or  early  summer.  This  makes 
them  from  twenty-four  to  twenty-eight  months  old,  de- 
pending upon  when  they  were  hatched. 

Another  important  factor  in  the  age  of  the  fowl  is 
the  month  in  which  they  were  hatched,  because  upon  that 
depends  their  maturity.  If  not  matured  to  permit  of 
early  winter  laying  they  are  not  profitable  egg  machines. 
This  is  often  overlooked  to  a  loss  of  profits  especially 
upon  many  farms.  February,  March,  April  and  May  are 
the  months  in  which  to  hatch  fall  and  winter  layers,  de- 
pending upon  the  breed  and  general  care  given.  Never 
keep  a  fowl  a  moment  after  she  is  non-productive.  A 
present  market  is  always  better  than  extra  feed  for  a 
nonproducer.  The  average  pullet  begins  to  lay  in  from 
six  to  nine  months,  also  depending  upon  the  breed  and 
care  given.  Do  not  hurry  a  pullet  into  egg-production 
before  maturity  but  force  it  in  early  fall  and  winter.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  give  the  young  stock  intended  for 
layers  any  different  care  than  is  given  under  the  various 
chapters  devoted  to  those  subjects. 

Finally,  the  productive  fowl  is  one  which  has  been  con- 
ditioned for  laying  purposes.  In  the  early  fall  the  stock 
.should  be  moved  into  the  quarters  which  they  will  occupy 
for  the  winter  so  that  they  may  become  accustomed  to 
their  new  home ;  also  their  sexual  development  is  taking 
place  during  this  early  season.  Avoid  overcrowding  and 
permit  plenty  of  fresh  air  without  draughts.  Give  good 
care  to  them  at  this  period,  feeding  a  growing  ration  with 
a  heavy  proportion  of  whole  grain  for  which  read  care- 


Conducting  an  Egg  Farm  125 

fully  "  Food  and  Feeding."  By  a  little  forethought  the 
pullets  will  be  ready  for  business  at  the  proper  time.  If 
molting  is  to  be  considered  that  may  be  forced  at  the 
proper  time  according  to  the  methods  given  under  the 
chapter  devoted  to  "  Molting." 

Under  "  F"oods  and  Feeding  "  much  of  value  to  this 
chapter  is  to  be  found.  The  aim  in  egg-production  is  to 
give  such  rations  as  will  enable  and  compel  productive- 
ness regardless  of  fertility  or  vitality  of  the  germ  which 
is  better  infertile.  The  presence  of  males  is  to  a  certain 
extent  detrimental  to  egg-production  and  especially  to 
their  keeping  qualities.  Still  more  important  in  the  food 
problem  is  to  obtain  the  needed  foodstuffs  at  the  least 
cost.  Aim  to  work  the  "  machine  "  to  the  limit  for  one 
year  at  the  least  expense  for  feed  and  care.  Keep  the 
fowls  cleanly,  healthy  and  well  nourished,  also  active, 
and  no  complaint  can  be  made  against  their  productivity. 
In  forced  laying  good  mashes  are  of  great  value.  Watch 
that  the  foodstuffs  are  bulky  enough  yet  contain  nour- 
ishment sufificient  so  that  the  needs  of  the  fowls  will  be 
satisfied  without  undue  strain  upon  the  digestive  organs. 
Never  feed  wet  mash  unless  willing  to  remove  any  food 
not  eaten  up  clean  in  a  few  moments  and  unless  willing 
to  cleanse  the  feed  receptacles  often.  Feed  regularly, 
feed  enough  to  satisfy  but  not  to  cloy  the  appetite,  induce 
exercise  and  supply  fresh  water  and  plenty  of  grit,  oyster 
shell  and  vegetables.  Follow  the  seasons  in  feeding,  re- 
membering in  cold  or  damp  Aveather  more  corn  or  fatten- 
ing rations  are  needed  and  that  when  laying  heavily  more 
foodstuffs  are  a  necessity.  No  one  can  outline  what 
amount  of  food  should  be  given.  Common  sense  is  the 
only  guide  after  one  studies  the  flock  and  understands 
the  conditions  of  climate,  season  and  various  other  ele- 
ments.    Keep  them  busy,  happy  and  healthy  and  remem- 


126        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

ber  that  variety  in  feeding  is  like  magic  in  its  results. 
It  matters  not  in  egg-production  when  they  obtain  the 
food  nor  in  what  manner,  so  long  as  it  is  provided. 

To  start  into  egg-farming  one  may  use  little  or  much 
capital.  It  is  always  better  to  start  in  a  small  way  and 
grow  into  the  business  by  degrees.  In  this  way  the  expe- 
rience, the  increasing  numbers  of  breeding  stock  and  the 
working  up  of  a  profitable  market  go  hand  in  hand.  Util- 
ize any  buildings  at  hand,  making  them  free  from 
draughts  and  otherwise  comfortable  and  sanitary.  Even 
a  straw  shed  has  wintered  many  a  flock  that  paid  a  hand- 
some dividend.  One  does  not  need  to  give  up  any  regu- 
lar vocation,  but  as  a  side  line  can  build  up  an  egg  trade 
to  the  size  where  it  is  possible  and  profitable  for  the 
regular  vocation  to  be  given  up.  Even  as  a  back-yard 
proposition  many  flocks  pay  the  grocery  bills  and  many 
a  farm  flock  has  paid  up  the  mortgage  on  the  home. 

There  are  two  great  factors  in  showing  a  good  profit 
on  the  ledger — one  economy  of  investment  and  the  other 
economy  of  labor.  Economy  of  investment  is  also  divided 
into  two  distinct  parts — investment  in  foodstuffs  and  in- 
vestment in  grounds,  buildings  and  fixtures.  It  is  to  the 
latter  that  this  paragraph  refers  and  to  the  saving  in 
labor  which  may  arise  from  a  good  arrangement.  The 
aim  in  building  is  to  permit  healthy,  comfortable  and 
convenient  quarters  at  a  reasonable  cost.  One  may  often 
utilize  old  buildings  to  good  advantage  by  very  few 
changes.  Large  flocks  have  l>een  wintered  through  on 
many  farms  by  means  of  straw  sheds  whose  inner  sur- 
face was  kept  intact  by  means  of  wire  netting  nailed  to 
the  posts  supporting  the  roof,  the  straw  walls  being  held 
in  place  by  a  second  fence  of  netting.  These  could  be 
made  rat-proof  by  using  inch-wire-mesh  netting.  In  any 
plan  the  floor  space  per  fowl  may  be  reduced  somewhat 


Conducting  an  Egg  Farm  127 

over  breeding  houses  since  fertility  and  vitality  are  elim- 
inated. The  size  of  the  flock  is  not  so  material  as  their 
care,  but  flocks  containing  from  ten  to  fifty  birds  usually 
give  the  better  results  in  the  average  hands. 

Whether  one  should  use  the  colony  plan  or  the  con- 
tinuous house  is  largely  a  matter  of  choice.  The  former 
gives  freedom  and  range,  thus  reducing  the  food  element 
of  cost  while  the  latter  lessens  the  labor  expense  by  con- 
siderable. Again  the  question  of  artificial  heat  arises. 
There  is  no  question  but  that  artificial  heat  under  right 
control  and  management  increases  egg-production,  yet 
many  question  the  advisability  of  using  it  when  they  con- 
sider that  the  added  expense  may  or  may  not  be  coun- 
terbalanced by  the  reduction  in  the  feeding  expense. 

The  care  of  fowls  for  egg- production  should  begin 
with  the  parent  stock  and  continue  to  the  point  where 
they  are  beginning  to  repay  a  person  for  the  care  given. 
\'arious  chapters  herein  go  fully  into  these  details.  After 
the  stock  is  ready  to  produce  results  the  same  principles 
of  correct  sanitation,  ventilation,  regular  and  intelligent 
feeding  and  watchful  care  will  be  necessary.  Do  not 
coddle  or  pamper  the  fowls,  but  make  them  comfortable 
and  happy.  Keep  males  out  of  the  pens  unless  intended 
for  breeders  and  then  do  not  tire  out  a  good  male  before 
the  breeding  season  by  giving  him  an  excess  of  females 
for  company.  The  intelligent  operator  will  constantly 
observe  conditions.  He  will  see  that  dust  baths  are  fur- 
nished, that  properly  cleaned  quarters  are  kept,  that  the 
food  and  drink  are  provided  aright,  that  the  combs  and 
plumage  indicate  health,  that  the  droppings  are  normal 
and  that  the  actions  are  such  as  show  that  all  the  func- 
tions of  the  fowl  are  in  proper  exercise.  One  reason 
why  so  large  a  majority  of  women  are  successful  is  that 
they  are  close  observers  and  profit  thereby. 


128        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

One  entire  chapter  is  devoted  to  an  important  phase 
of  egg-fanning  and  after  reading  "  Marketing  the  Com- 
mercial Egg "  any  active  person  will  soon  acquire  an 
outlet  for  his  produce  which  will  at  once  be  both  profit- 
able and  satisfactory.  \\'ith  each  member  of  a  flock  lay- 
ing a  yearly  average  of  from  120  to  175  eggs  which  are 
properly  marketed  it  leaves  the  investor  to  multiply  the 
average  annual  profit  of  one  dollar  per  fowl  by  the  num- 
ber of  dollars  in  his  desired  income  to  find  the  number 
of  fowls  he  shall  keep.  Then  he  may  work  out  his  invest- 
ment and  at  the  same  time  if  of  the  right  material  for 
egg-farming  he  may  increase  that  profit  by  the  close  ap- 
plication of  his  business  acumen..  If  he  may  not  devote 
his  whole  time  he  still  may  keep  a  limited  number.  The 
housewife  by  a  little  efifort  may  make  the  poultry  a 
ble'ssing  to  the  home  by  both  the  increased  variety  af- 
forded the  table  and  also  by  such  cash  sales  as  may  be 
made  from  time  to  time.  Lastly,  let  it  be  impressed  that 
egg-farming  differs  but  little  from  any  other  branch  of 
the  poultry  business  and  that  the  studies  throughout  this 
volume  will  afford  an  intelligent  person  with  much  of 
value.  If  this  chapter  shall  have  called  the  attention  of 
the  present  or  prospective  egg-farmer  to  the  data  he  is 
seeking  and  to  seriously  see  how  simple  yet  how  complex 
is  the  subject,  then  its  aim  shall  have  been  satisfied. 


Chapter  X. 

FIVE  METHODS  OF  SELECTING  THE  LAYIXG 
HEX. 

One  of  the  most  important  matters  in  the  pouhry  world 
is  to  breed  correctly  for  the  result  one  wishes  to  accom- 
plish whether  it  be  for  fancy  points,  meat  or  eggs  or 
any  combination  of  these  three  aims.  A>ry  essential  it 
is  then  to  know  which  birds  of  your  laying  pens  are  the 
egg  producers  and  if  your  breeding  is  governed  by  in- 
telligent selection  your  future  hens  will  be  made  that 
much  more  profitable.  Every  animal  or  fowl  will  trans- 
mit to  their  progeny  any  traits  or  other  tendencies  pres- 
ent in  the  parent  stock. 

In  presenting  a  few  methods  of  selecting  the  laying 
hens  we  fully  realize  that  certain  skeptics  will  scoff  at 
some  ideas  advanced,  but  they  will  do  well  to  study  and 
experiment  more  fully  before  uttering  adverse  criti- 
cism. Our  forefathers  used  some  of  these  methods  with 
much  success,  and  while  they  are  not  all  infallible  used 
separately,  yet  some  truth  exists  in  each  and  when  used 
intelligently  and  in  relation  to  each  other  are  of  much 
value.  Science  is  approaching  a  better  solution  of  this 
important  problem.  In  adopting  any  method  it  is  bet- 
ter to  use  leg  b£.nds  and  a  small  record  book  so  that  one 
may  not  confuse  the  various  birds  and  hence  do  them 
injustice.  In  using  the  full  crop  method  it  is  just  as  es- 
sential to  note  that  hen  number  ten  has  been  a  contin- 
uously hearty  eater  and  that  hen  number  twenty  has 
129 


130        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

averaged  a  much  smaller  crop  as  it  is  that  proper  ac- 
count be  kept  of  their  trap-nest  records.  One  essen- 
tial before  any  method  will  be  of  value  is  that  the  care 
and  feeding  shall  be  entirely  proper  and  uniform. 

1.  Trap-nests — The  certain  method  of  ascertaining 
the  record  of  each  hen  or  other  fowl  is  by  the  use  of  the 
trap-nest.  This  gives  to  each  bird  its  exact  record  day 
by  day  throughout  the  year.  The  only  objection  is  the 
time  involved,  yet  considering  results  it  is  worth  the 
cost.  Only  the  pullet  need  thus  be  trap-nested  and  then 
breed  them  the  second  year,  unless  it  is  desired  to  use 
a  trap-nest  for  a  longer  period.  Do  not  fail  to  breed 
to  a  cock  or  cockerel  of  a  known  hen  or  all  effort  will 
be  largely  lost. 

2.  Shape  and  Expansion — One  of  the  best  and  oldest 
methods  for  a  careful  observer  is  the  shape  and  expan- 
sion method.  By  shape  is  meant  the  hen  that  carries  a 
rather  long  body  being  fairly  broad  at  the  rear  consider- 
ing the  breed  type.  The  standard  Leghorn  is  an  egg 
producing  type  and  is  one  of  the  largest  tgg  producers 
known.  In  any  other  breed  the  type  must  be  considered, 
yet  the  above  tendency  will  prevail  with  the  best  layers. 

By  expansion  is  meant  that  element  present  in  every 
known  animal  or  bird  to  become  gradually  relaxed  and 
broader  in  and  about  the  vent  region  previous  to  and 
during  the  birth  of  their  young  and  in  birds  while  pro- 
ducing eggs.  In  former  years,  while  experimenting, 
the  expansion  of  a  hen  during  egg  expulsion  was  a  rev- 
elation to  the  writer,  especially  when  remembering  that 
the  entire  egg  had  to  pass  between  the  lower  points  of 
the  pubis  bones  and  those  of  the  ischium  above,  this  be- 
ing the  location  of  the  vent.  Note  the  location  of  these 
bones  in  the  skeleton  shown  elsewhere,  taken  from  Chau- 


Selecting  the  Laying  Hen  131 

veau.  Were  not  this  principle  of  expansion  true  only  pain 
and  death  could  result  from  reproduction  under  the 
present  physical  construction  of  fowls.  "  In  the  non- 
breeding  season,  when  the  parts  are  in  repose,  the  ovary 
and  oviduct  are  reduced  in  size  and  almost  disappear  " 
(Salmon)  and  nature's  relaxation  and  enlargement  of 
the  rear  parts  of  the  laying  hen  are  replaced  by  a  set- 
tled and  restricted  condition. 

Now  this  principle  is  as  old  as  science  and  w'hen  care- 
fully studied  and  applied  is  the  most  valuable  next  to 
the  use  of  the  trap-nest.  To  become  proficient  it  is  nec- 
essary to  study  the  shape  and  condition  of  the  parts  in 
and  about  the  vent  in  a  hen  which  is  laying  and  one  which 
is  not  producing  eggs.  It  is  best  to  pick  out  two  or  more 
hens  from  the  flock  and  isolate  them.  Handle  each  care- 
fully and  quietly  for  a  few  days,  thus  accustoming  them 
to  being  picked  up  at  any  time  without  disturbing  them. 
Feed  and  care  well  for  tliem  to  place  them  in  laying  con- 
dition. Now  each  day  as  they  are  picked  up  run  the 
fingers  slowly  across  just  below  the  vent,  noticing  that 
there  are  two  hard  points  v/hich  are  the  rear  extrem- 
ities of  the  pubis  bones  forming  the  framework  of  the 
female  within  and  Lelow  which  lie  all  the  entrails,  the 
reproductive  organs,  and  the  egg  channel  or  oviduct. 
Now  just  as  we  breathe  and  enlarge  the  chest  and  thereby 
spread  apart  the  lower  ribs,  or  as  the  rear  part  of  an 
animal  relaxes  to  expel  its  young,  so  does  the  rear  frame- 
w^ork  of  the  hen  expand  when  filled  w'ith  eggs  from  the 
regular  size  and  on  down  to  the  smallest  one  of  the 
clutch.  These  knobs  will  gradually  spread  during  the 
development  of  the  clutch  in  the  same  proportion  as 
the  clutch  of  eggs  growls  and  is  greatest  at  the  time 
when  the  clutch  contains  the  first  developed  egg  ready  to 
be  expelled  or  in  younger  hens  it  may  be  a  few  days  later. 


132        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

The  only  other  time  when  these  two  knobs  are  spread 
apart  to  a  greater  extent  is  just  while  the  female  is  ex- 
pelling the  egg.  So  by  finding  the  bones  and  measuring 
their  distance  apart  with  the  thumb  or  fingers  one  can 
study  their  relative  distance  apart  in  each  breed  and 
each  hen  both  before  and  when  the  hen  is  laying  as  well 
as  when  she  ceases  laying.  In  this  way  proficiency  will 
result  so  that  one  may  become  fairly  accurate  in  choosing 
the  hen  that  is  laying  or  is  on  the  way  to  lay. 

One  must  not  forget  that  age,  time  of  year  and  breeds 
33  well  as  individual  fowls  vary  in  their  development 
and  expansion  and  what  would  be  a  proper  spread  or 
expansion  to  indicate  laying  in  one  bird  might  not  hold 
true  of  another  bird  of  the  same  breed,  variety  or  flock. 
Again  a  greater  expansion  may  indicate  that  the  hen  in 
question  is  laying  a  greater  relative  number  of  eggs  per 
week  than  at  another  time  when  the  parts  are  somewhat 
more  contracted.  The  greater  number  of  well  devel- 
oped eggs  contained  the  greater  the  expansion.  Again 
let  the  principle  be  impressed  that  the  framework  of  the 
rear  of  the  hen  is  attached  to  the  backbone  above  and 
free  below,  hence  the  egg-filled  chamber  can  expand  in 
only  one  place,  thus  giving  the  breadth  and  bone  expan- 
sion of  the  laying  hen. 

3.  Crop  and  Roosting — Another  method  used  quite  ex- 
tenLjively  by  keen  poultry  observers  is  that  of  noticing 
which  fowls  enter  the  coops  and  go  to  their  roosting 
places  late.  It  is  quite  true  that  the  laying  hen  does 
not  have  time  to  go  to  roost  early,  as  she  is  too  busy 
and  active  finding  that  last  bug  or  other  morsel.  Closely 
associated  with  the  roosting  habit,  since  it  springs  from 
the  same  cause,  is  that  of  a  large  crop.  As  the  fowls 
are  upon  the  roost  at  night  examine  their  crops.  Those 
full  extended  crops  of  good  size  belong  to  the  laying 


Selectixg  the  Laying  Hens  133 

class.  To  produce  eggs  in  plenty  requires  a  large  amount 
of  food.  The  laying  hen  not  only  requires  it  but  obtains 
it  while  her  sister  of  the  smaller  crop  usually  proves  to 
be  the  non-producer.  The  useful  hen  is  also  the  first  one 
up  at  daybreak  rustling  about  for  a  plentiful  breakfast. 

4.  Development — Those  pullets  among  a  brood  which 
develop  earliest  are  said  to  be  the  best  layers.  Certain 
it  is  they  will  lay  earlier  and  therefore  in  a  given  time 
be  more  valuable. 

5.  Condition — First  sell  ofif  the  over  fat  hen  w^hich  is 
usually  a  non-producing  hen.  One  will  always  see  her 
seek  the  roost  early  in  the  evening  and  leave  last  m 
the  morning.  Then  notice  the  bird  which  is  active,  rug- 
ged and  always  hungry.  Note  a  bright  red  comb  and 
wattles.  This  hen  is  the  producer.  If  none  are  thus 
distinctive  something  is  wTong.  Either  the  feeding  is 
imperfect  or  lice  are  drawing  the  life  blood  from  the 
hens  as  fast  as  food  can  make  it. 


Chapter  XL 
MOLTING. 

The  functions  of  the  feathers  are  many,  the  chief 
among  which  is  clothing  the  body.  This  covering  is  an 
excellent  non-conductor  of  heat  and  cold,  is  light  and 
strong,  repels  dirt  and  is  an  ornament  of  no  small  beauty. 

Molting  of  fowls  is  the  annual  shedding  of  their 
plumage  and  the  growth  of  new.  A  protracted  or  con- 
tinuous molt  is  unnatural.  The  importance  of  the  molt 
is  often  underestimated  and  proper  food  and  care  with- 
held when  most  needed. 

The  earmarks  of  the  molt  appear  in  the  dropping  off 
of  egg  production,  loose  feathers  in  evidence,  loss  of 
appetite  and  the  ragged  appearance  of  the  fowls.  This 
is  the  time  of  large  demand  on  the  system  and  of  low  vi- 
tality. A  fowl  in  this  condition  easily  contracts  dis- 
ease if  neglected. 

At  no  time  should  attention  be  more  carefully  given 
than  during  the  molt.  Provide  the  fowl  with  strength 
and  save  it  from  catching  cold  by  supplying  dry,  warm 
quarters  during  stormy  or  damp  weather.  Keep  them 
free  from  lice,  as  at  no  season  of  the  year  is  a  fowl  less 
abje  to  stand  the  drain  upon  the  system  caused  by  vermin. 
If  the  molting  stock  is  weak  and  droopy  you  are  safe 
in  assuming  it  infested.  IMany  put  epsom  salts  in  the 
drinking  water  twice  a  week  at  this  time,  using  just 
enough  to  taste  slightly.  Birds  intended  for  shows  should 
be  given  plenty  of  shade  as  the  hot  sun  injures  the 
plumage.  Often  the  male  birds  become  very  cross  and 
134 


Molting 


135 


ugly   during   their   molt    and    are   best    separated    from 
the  females. 

The  feeding  during  this  period  should  be  such  as  to 
promote   a   quick,    healthy   growth   of   feathers.      Grain 


BARRED   PLY:\I0UTH   ROCK   IX   MOLT. 
Courtesy  of  Peerless  Poultry  Plant   (Inc.). 


and  grass  alone  are  improper  because  the  composition 
of  feathers  is  highly  nitrogenous  and  mineral.  Less 
wheat  and  corn  and  more  green  foods,  meats,  bone,  bran 


136        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

mash,  grit,  charcoal,  and  pure  water  are  needed.  A 
long  continued  narrow  ration  of  nitrogenous  food  would 
tend  to  produce  a  continuous  molt.  Since  feathers  con- 
tain much  sulphur  many  give  a  mash  about  twice  a  week 
containing  a  tablespoonful  of  flour  of  sulphur  to  every 
eight  birds  fed.  Black  and  buff  feathers  are  especially 
improved.     Too  much  is  not  best  for  white  plumage. 

Forcing  a  molt  is  often  desired  especially  to  get  a 
flock  in  show  room  condition  or  to  obtain  winter  layers 
from  otherwise  non-profitable  hens.  The  natural  season 
is  from  June  to  November  and  often  a  fowl  will  take 
three  months  or  more  for  the  process.  Again  the  same 
hen  w^ill  not  molt  at  a  corresponding  time  each  year. 
It  is  a  recognized  fact  that  an  early  molting  female  be- 
comes an  early  layer  and  the  opposite  is  also  true,  hence 
the  desire  to  force  an  early  and  uniform  molt.  To,  ac- 
complish this  the  daily  allowance  of  food  is  withdrawn 
and  but  very  little  is  given  for  several  days  or  two  weeks, 
after  which  feed  heavily  of  nitrogenous  foods  such  as 
linseed  meal,  beef,  bone,  middlings,  oats  and  of  other 
grains  sparingly  for  a  few  days.  Egg  production  wdll 
drop  off  and  upon  changing  from  the  scant  rations 
to  the  feather-forming  foods  the  molt  will  be  rapid  and 
uniform.  Winter  layers  will  usually  result  from  this 
forced  molting. 

Pullets  hatched  late  rarely  molt  while  those  hatched 
early  do  so  to  some  extent. 


Chapter  XII. 

POULTRY  HOUSES,   FIXTURES,   FENCES 
AND  YARDS. 

In  presenting  this  subject  it  will  be  the  aim  to  keep 
well  within  principles  rather  than  to  give  specific  plans, 
believing  that  by  this  method  the  greatest  help  will  be 
given  to  the  largest  number  of  persons.  No  one  plan 
is  adaptable  to  every  location  or  to  every  purpose,  there- 
fore each  plant  presents  a  special  problem  because  of 
diverse  soil,  surface,  objects,  capital,  markets  and  many 
other  considerations.  An  expert  employed  to  assist  in 
laying  out  a  plant  would  be  ultimate  economy.  Of  all  farm 
buildings  erected  for  various  purposes  the  poultry  build- 
ings bring  in  the  best  income  and  yet  on  the  average  are 
the  most  neglected  of  all.  Of  late  years  much  interest 
is  being  given  to  this  subject  with  encouraging  results. 
In  their  order  will  be  taken  up  the  choosing  of  a  location, 
the  general  arrangement  of  a  plant,  the  investment,  build- 
ings and  their  fixtures,  yards,  parks  or  ranges  and  fences. 
Choosing  a  Business  Location. 

The  main  point  to  be  considered  in  location  is  first  to 
choose  the  county,  state  and  locality  in  which  one  wishes  to 
reside,  if  that  point  is  not  already  settled.  Next  will 
come  transportation  facilities,  markets,  soil,  drainage, 
climate,  water  and  sewerage  to  consider.  Following 
will  appear  points  along  these  lines  which  may  assist  in 
taking  advantage  of  natural  and  existing  conditions 
favorable  to  success. 

Transportation — If  a  poultry  plant  is  located  near 
137 


138        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

good  transportation  the  saving  of  time  and  extra  charg- 
es will  be  quite  a  factor  in  showing  profits  on 'the  ledger. 
Transportation  may  be  by  rail,  trolley,  steamboat,  stage 
or  better  yet,  one  may  be  within  a  wagon  journey  of 
a  good  market,  A  junction  or  railway  center  offers 
ease  of  reaching  diiTerent  markets  and  more  than  one 
outlet  makes  it  easier  to  adjust  claims.  However  do  not 
let  the  matter  of  transportation  outweigh  the  other  ques- 
tions of  investment  and  cheaper  feed  as  a  large  city  has 
no  advantage  over  a  country  village  except  that  egg 
and  dressed  poultry  routes  are  more  obtainable  if  one 
desires  that  method  of  disposing  of  produce.  On  the 
other  hand  the  small  center  offers  cheaper  living,  cheap- 
er land,  cheaper  foodstuffs  and  a  better  opportunity  of 
locating  nearer  transportation  and  at  the  same  time  al- 
lows the  family  better  church,  school  and  social  oppor- 
tunities. Another  very  important  point  is  to  get  within 
the  express  limits  of  a  good  market  and  if  possible  on 
a  direct  route  to  avoid  transfers  of  freight  and  express. 
With  our  splendid  means  of  transportation  the  matter 
of  location  is  much  simplified. 

Markets — The  question  of  markets  is  important,  yet 
not  vital,  as  good  markets  exist  in  every  part  of  the 
world  as  well  as  in  every  part  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  The  larger  the  city  the  better  the  market,  un- 
less that  city  should  have  a  rich  country  on  all  sides 
to  draw  upon.  Where  cities  are  placed,  geographically, 
in  a  somewhat  isolated  position,  they  often  are  strong 
markets.  Yet  when  other  factors  are  considered  the  in- 
creased market  price  may  not  afford   an   extra   profit. 

The  centers  are  not  the  only  available  markets,  as 
many  of  the  smaller  cities  are  excellent  points,  espe- 
cially at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  when  they  are  com- 
pelled  to   draw    upon    the    larger    cities    for    supplies. 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  139 

Methods  of  marketing  are  given  elsewhere  and  the  sug- 
gestions therein  may  assist  in  deciding  upon  a  location. 
Some  plants  are  located  near  summer  resorts  and  en- 
joy a  nice  trade  which  often  leads  to  more  permanent 
contracts. 

The  object  one  has  in  raising  poultry  often  has  a  di- 
rect bearing  upon  choosing  a  location,  since  many  mar- 
kets which  would  take  a  larger  output  of  eggs  might 
take  but  few  broilers.  In  other  localities  fancy  stock 
might  be  more  profitable  than  either  and  therefore  it  is 
well  to  settle  upon  a  course  and  then  locate  near  a  mar- 
ket for  the  specific  thing  chosen  to  produce. 

Soil  and  Drainage — Much  discussion  has  been  given 
to  soil  and  its  relation  to  the  poultry  industry.  Much 
of  it  has  been  of  little  value.  That  relative  to  drain- 
age has  not  been  emphasized  enough.  Soil  and  drain- 
age are  also  rather  difficult  to  treat  separately  as  the 
latter  is  almost  dependent  upon  the  former  except  as 
slopes  may  be  considered.  It  is  entirely  fitting  at  this 
point  to  state  that  one  soil  may  be  much  better  than 
another,  yet  any  soil  rightly  handled,  will  yield  good 
results.  A  point  w^orth  remembering  in  some  sections 
of  the  country  is  that  certain  grounds  are  liable  to  be 
flooded  by  excessive  freshets  and  for  this  reason  should 
not  be  chosen. 

Light  sandy  soil  makes  an  excellent  drainage  and  al- 
lows a  thorough  cleansing  of  the  filth  that  may  touch  it. 
It  is  never  muddy  and  sticky  and  always  is  free  from 
snow  early  in  the  spring.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  usu- 
ally non-productive  and  hot  in  the  summer,  thus  afford- 
ing scant  comfort  in  the  summertime  except  as  some 
shade  exists.  For  close  confinement  pens  it  does  very 
well. 

Heavy  clay  soil  becomes  very  annoying  to  fowls  in 


140        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

wet  weather.  The  surface  water  fails  to  seep  away 
quickly  and  the  droppings  do  not  leave  the  surface  read- 
ily. Crustations  of  filth  are  often  found  upon  the  sur- 
face while  the  snow  does  not  leave  it  early  in  the  spring. 
The  vegetation  is  better  than  upon  sand,  affording  more 
green  food  and  better  crops.  Where  runs  are  made  in 
this  soil  a  subdrainage  of  tile  and  surfacing  with  sand 
is  desirable.    Frequent  plowing  is  often  necessary. 

A  sandy  loam  with  a  good  gravel  subsoil  or  a  sloping 
surface  is  the  ideal  soil  and  drainage  for  poultry.  It 
allows  the  advantages  of  both  without  the  evils,  and 
also  gives  the  fowls  as  much  contentment  as  soil  can 
furnish.  Being  at  the  same  time  rich  and  loose,  every 
kind  of  a  crop  and  vegetation  suitable  for  poultry  can 
be  grown.  It  insures  the  cheapness  of  grain  and  usu- 
ally is  well  supplied  with  transportation  facilities  and 
nearness  to  markets. 

A  low  damp  soil  is  always  to  be  avoided.  The  lo- 
cation should  be  chosen  with  a  view  to  a  sloping  sur- 
face if  possible  to  make  drainage  of  both  water  and  air 
complete.  Many  low  or  level  tracts  of  land  at  certain 
seasons  are  foggy  and  cold  at  the  surface.  This  is  det- 
rimental, or  at  least  must  be  considered  in  rearing  poul- 
try. The  air  flows  in  currents,  as  does  water,  the  cold 
and  damp  air  always  seeking  a  lower  level  because  it 
is  heavier.  Those  living  in  a  perfectly  level  country  can- 
not realize  this  as  well  as  those  who  are  living  in  a  more 
broken  country,  yet  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  choos- 
ing a  location,  since  a  possible  profit  will  be  reduced 
by  extra  feed  for  warmth  and  vigor.  A  poultry  house 
located  upon  a  bank  of  a  stream  in  a  rolling  country 
may  be  more  free  from  damp  soil  or  air  than  a  house 
upon  a  level  country  miles  from  surface  water.  In  air- 
drainage  altitude  plays  quite  a  part. 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  141 

Climate — This  subject  is  one  upon  which  advice  from 
any  source  is  not  in  order  without  it  is  much  quahfied. 
Every  cHmate  has  its  drawbacks  at  certain  seasons.  In 
judging  the  merits  or  demerits  of  a  chmate  one  must 
take  into  consideration  not  only  the  best  season  but  all 
seasons  of  the  year.  We  well  know  that  while  certain 
warmer  sections  and  climates  are  keeping  the  breeder 
busy  fighting  heat  and  vermin,  breeders  of  other  sec- 
tions may  be  fighting  away  the  cold.  In  short  we  have  yet 
to  find  a  climate  that  is  beyond  reproach  for  poultry  rais- 
ing. 

It  is  well  to  avoid  extremes  of  heat  or  cold,  of  severe 
winds,  of  atmospheric  stagnation,  of  lake  influences 
where  damp  winds  prevail,  or  any  other  condition  which 
tends  to  drain  the  system,  thus  requiring  offsetting  feed 
and  care.  Outside  of  some  local  climatic  conditions 
let  not  climate  alone  govern  a  choice  of  location.  Good 
fowls  are  being  raised  everywhere. 

Water  and  Sezverage — This  question  arises  often  and 
must  be  settled  by  what  is  available  in  the  locality  other- 
wise chosen.  However  it  is  wise  to  keep  this  in  mind. 
Some  plants  are  located  where  a  stream  flows  through 
the  premises,  thus  solving  both  problems.  If  the  stream 
is  a  good  current,  a  dam  is  often  arranged  and  the 
water  forced  into  every  part  of  the  premises  with  a  sew- 
er system  emptying  below  the  plant,  to  take  the  overflow. 
Others  use  different  means  than  gravity  to  care  for 
the  pressure.  Where  one  lives  in  a  city  or  near  a  water 
svstem,  suitable  arrangements  can  often  be  made  to 
obtain  a  supply.  Still  others  use  windmills  or  gaso- 
line engines  to  raise  the  well-water  to  a  gravity  tank. 
Where  good  natural  sewerage  is  not  obtainable,  a  cess- 
pool may  be  used.  This  may  be  cleaned  once  in  about 
two   vears   or   as   often   as   necessitv   demands.      Never 


142        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

choose  a  location  for  water  only  if  thereby  a  damp  or 
unhandy  yarding  will  result. 

General  Arrangement  of  a   Plant. 

Arrange  carefully  the  entire  plant  in  order  that  econ- 
omy of  time  and  labor  may  result,  that  yarding  will  be 
as  inexpensive  as  possible  and  that  the  general  plan 
will  be  attractive.  An  office  or  central  building  should 
be  handy  to  the  plant  and  highwaw  The  incubator 
cellar,  the  brooder  houses,  the  chick  houses,  the  hen- 
neries, the  shipping  room  and  the  storerooms  should  be 
so  arranged  that  a  continuous  journey  would  enable 
an  attendant  to  perform  his  duties  and  return  him  to 
a  desired  point.  Water  arrangements  should  be  con- 
venient. Also  consider  any  other  buildings  necessary 
to  the  kind  of  a  plant  being  erected. 

To  do  arrangement  justice  a  complete  plan  should  be 
worked  out  which  is  drawn  to  permit  of  the  purpose  in 
view  and  which  will  allow  of  expansion.  Then  follow 
it  as  each  step  is  taken.  It  is  not  possible  to  take  a 
set  of  plans  used  by  one  person  and  follow  it,  as  no 
two  locations  are  alike  in  natural  surroundings  or  in 
reference  to  highways,  dwellings,  outbuildings,  or  points 
of  the  compass.  Each  plant,  be  it  large  or  small  must 
be  planned  individually  to  be  the  most  satisfactory. 

Investment. 
The  amount  of  capital  is  entirely  one  to  be  determined 
by  the  means  at  hand  and  the  object  for  which  the  plant 
is  to  be  built.  A  start  can  always  be  made  upon  a  few 
dollars  or  a  large  investment.  If  the  person  in  charge  is 
not  experienced  in  the  business  it  is  well  to  make  a 
modest  beginning  and  grow  into  it  by  degrees.  The  real 
object  determined,  one  *can  soon  obtain  estimates  upon 
the  various  lands,  buildings,  yards  and  other  needed  equip- 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  143 

ment  to  attain  to  a  certain  amount  of  business  desired. 
The  amount  of  time  one  desires  to  give,  the  income  he 
expects  and  many  other  considerations  enter. 

The  real  intent  of  this  heading  was  not  so  much  the 
amount  of  the  investment  as  whether  it  were  better  to 
lease  a  property  or  buy  one  outright.  The  leasing  has  in 
its  favor  the  argument  that  the  investment  will  be  less 
and  a  subsequent  loss  less  in  case  of  failure,  while  the 
purchase  lends  an  idea  of  stability  and  permanency  to 
the  enterprise.  It  also  gives  the  owner  a  better  incentive 
to  improve  and  add  to  the  plant.  In  either  case  one 
may  sometimes  obtain  fairly  good  plants  or  places  with 
available  buildings  of  various  kinds  much  more  reason- 
able than  a  first  cost  to  construct  them  upon  vacant 
lands. 

Buildings  and  Their  Fixtures. 

Before  taking  up  the  individual  buildings  a  little  space 
will  be  given  to  a  few  practical  studies. 

Relative  Area  Studies — There  are  three  types  of  roofs 
most  frequently  used — gable,  combination  and  one-pitch 
roofs. 


144 


SciENcii  AND  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


Given  the  same  pitcli  and  floor  plan  the  areas  of 
the  roof  of  each  type  of  house  are  equal  and  where 
these  relative  heights  of  sides  are  kept  the  total 
areas  of  the  sides  of  each  of  these  types  are  equal. 
Therefore  at  these  dimensions  the  material  for  each 
house  will  be  of  equal  value  except  for  the  variation  of 
the  ends.  The  ends  of  the  gable  type  are  the  largest, 
the   one  pitch   type   the   smallest. 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards 


145 


(  )nc  side  of  eacli  tj-pe  of  house  being  of  the  same 
height  while  the  ground  plan  and  pitch  remain  the 
same  the  areas  of  the  sides  become  unequal.  The 
areas  of  the  ends  and  sides  of  the  one  pitch  roof  be- 
ing the  greatest  and  of  the  gable  roof  the  smallest. 


146        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Where  one  has  a  like  floor  plan  and  the  same  pitch, 
the  same  material  is  required  to  build  a  j^able  roof,  a 
combination  roof  or  a  one-pitch  roof.  However  the 
shape  of  the  roof  does  influence  the  cost  of  the  sides 
to  some  extent.  The  pitch  of  a  roof  affects  the  cost 
since  the  steeper  the  roof  the  more  material  it  takes  for 
both  roof  and  sides,  yet  the  lon^i^er  the  roof  will  last. 
One-third  pitch  for  shingles  and  one-fourth  pitch  for 
patent  roofing  are  the  usual  measurements. 

The  gable  roof  gives  the  most  garret  room  for  stor- 
age or  for  straw  loft  ventilation,  gives  the  best  chance  for 
an  alley  in  the  rear  at  the  least  expense  and  gives  the 
greatest  number  of  cubic  feet  air  space  per  fowl.  It 
is  the  most  attractive  roof  of  the  three. 

The  single  or  one-pitch  roof  is  the  best  for  patent 
roofing  since  the  sun  does  not  strike  it  vertically,  it  al- 
lows for  high  windows,  saves  half  of  the  expense  for 
eaves  trough  and  is  the  easiest  to  construct. 

The  combination  roof  partakes  of  the  advantages  of 
both  the  gable  and  the  one-pitch  roof. 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards 


147 


60 


The  floor  areas  of  A  and  B  are  equal.  The  distance 
around  A  is  70  feet  while  it  is  130  feet  around  B. 
This  illustrates  the  principle  that  the  nearer  square 
an  area  becomes  the   shorter  the  distance  around  it. 


The  form  of  a  building  has  to  do  with  the  cost  of 
construction.  Continuous  houses  save  ends.  The  more 
nearly  square  a  house  is  built,  when  of  a  given  area, 
the  more  economical  it  becomes. 

The  lower  a  building  is,  without  making  it  difficult 
of  use,  the  easier  it  is  warmed.  This  is  with  the  pro- 
vision that  ample  air  space  is  retained  for  the  use  in- 
tended. 


148        SciiiNCE  AND  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


^"^zcmTner 


Showing  the  relative  floor  space  covered  by  the 
sun  at  different  angles.  These  angles  vary  with  the 
seasons  as  well  as  during  each  day. 

The  area  of  a  floor  covered  by  the  smi's  rays  depends 
upon  the  opening  through  which  sunHght  enters.  Too 
much  glass  is  not  desired  because  of  the  variations 
in  temperature  caused.  A  medium  which  will  afford 
the  most  sunlight  upon  the  greatest  floor  area  will  be 
found  in  a  long  and  narrow  window  placed  upright 
rather  than  horizontal.  From  the  cut  shown  the  rel- 
ative areas  can  be  readily  seen  to  shift  with  the  size 
of  the  opening.  The  horizontal  window  of  an  equal 
size  allows  the  same  area  of  sunlight  to  fall  upon  the 
floor,  but  in  the  course  of  a  day  does  not  pass  over  the 
equal  area  covered  by  the  light  from  a  perpendicular 
window.     Openings   should  be  placed  high  enough   so 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  149 

that  at  all  seasons  the  sunlight  may  fall  well  to  the  rear 
of  the  house  instead  of  being  limited  to  a  small  area 
in  the  front.  A  sash  of  small  panes  obstructs  light 
while  if  the  panes  are  too  large  they  are  easily  broken. 
A  medium  size  should  be  employed. 

J^eiitilatioii  Studies — This  is  really  the  keynote  to  suc- 
cessful results  all  along  the  line  of  poultry  raising,  or 
it  might  be  better  said  that  lack  of  right  ventilation  has 
caused  more  failures  in  the  poultry  business  than  all  oth- 
er reasons  combined.  In  the  incubator,  in  the  brooder,  in 
the  colony  house  or  in  the  regular  houses  there  seems  to 
exist  gross  carelessness  in  supplying  fresh  air.  Yet  its 
very  simplicity  seems  to  be  its  difficulty. 

There  is  only  one  principle  to  announce  in  connection 
with  sane  ventilation — that  of  supplying  fresh  air  with- 
out creating  a  draught.  Many  schemes  have  been  pre- 
sented but  are  really  reducible  to  about  three  types — side 
openings,  loft  circulation  and  special  ventilation. 

The  special  ventilators  are  in  many  cases  worse  than 
none  at  all,  because  they  are  so  often  neglected  that 
they  operate  at  times  when  they  should  be  closed  and  too 
often  create  a  strong  current  toward  some  other  open- 
ing. They  require  expert  handling  for  real  use  and 
therefore  are  not  only  inclined  to  be  impracticable,  but 
dangerous  in  the  hands  of  the  average  attendant. 

The  loft  ventilation  is  quite  satisfactory.  This  is  not 
accomplished  by  a  small  opening  to  create  a  draught 
downward,  but  by  covering  almost  the  entire  area  of 
joists  with  cloth  or  burlap,  or  by  placing  thereon  netting 
or  narrow  strips  upon  which  are  placed  straw,  hay  or 
other  like  material  to  the  depth  of  about  one  or  two 
feet.  The  straw  also  absorbs  dampness  and  with  proper 
openings  above  the  straw  or  cloth  the  fresh  air  sifts  down 


150        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

without  creating  a  draught.  This  method  is  only  avail- 
able for  certain  houses. 

The  ventilation  by  openings  is  the  one  in  most  favor 
at  the  present  and  varies  from  the  fresh-air  house,  with 
its  one  side  entirely  open,  to  the  placing  of  curtains 
over  a  door  or  window  opening.  Some  dispense  with  the 
sash  entirely,  using  cloth-covered  frames  in  their  place. 
Others  use  the  sash  but  place  a  cloth  curtain  in  such  a  po- 
sition that  it  may  be  adjusted  at  pleasure.  The  simplest 
and  at  the  same  time  convenient  arrangement  for  a  cur- 
tain either  upon  a  door  or  window  frame  is  to  slide  the 
curtain  on  a  wire  at  the  top  and  bottom  so  that  it  may 
be  pushed  aside  entirely  or  spread  over  the  whole  open- 
ing. Others  use  a  door  which  has  both  cloth  and  wood- 
en shutters  to  care  for  severe  weather,  thus  doing  away 
with  the  regular  door  entirely.  Where  an  open  scratch- 
ing shed  plan  is  adopted  the  door  leading  from  the  house 
may  be  left  open  or  not  used  at  all. 

In  either  of  the  last  two  methods  care  should  be 
used  to  place  the  openings  to  the  side  of  the  house 
where  the  least  wind  will  enter,  even  if  glass  has  to  be 
used  to  furnish  sunlight  from  the  south.  In  most  coun- 
tries in  the  temperate  zone  the  south  is  the  side  usually 
chosen,  although  in  some  localities  it  is  not  best.  More 
important  it  is  that  no  other  openings  exist  so  that  the 
building  can  be  wind-swept.  A  volume  of  air  is  not 
so  harmful  as  a  current,  regardless  of  the  size  of  the 
latter.  Climatic  conditions  will  govern  the  manner  of 
ventilating  to  a  large  extent. 

The  evils  of  poor  ventilation  can  hardly  be  described 
without  going  over  much  ground.  With  proper  ven- 
tilation the  majority  of  poultry  diseases  will  be  elim- 
inated, since  dampness  and  draughts  will  disappear 
and  with  them  colds,  roup  and  nearly  all  of  the  other 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  151 

ills  that  beset  fowls.  Extremes  of  temperature  are  held  in 
check  while  comfort  and  cleanUness  are  increased  by 
proper  ventilation. 

Foundation  Studies — A  few  suggestions  will  apply 
in  all  types  of  buildings,  no  matter  where  constructed. 

Drainage  is  important  both  for  durability  of  the  foun- 
dation as  well  as  the  subsequent  health  of  future  in- 
mates. Where  no  set  place  is  given  always  choose 
ground  sloping  slightly  away  upon  all  sides.  If  the 
position  desired  will  not  admit  of  natural  advantages, 
then  artificial  means  must  be  employed.  If  a  hollow 
exists  it  should  be  graded  full ;  if  level,  plan  that  the 
excavated  soil  gives  the  immediate  ground  a  slope.  Al- 
ways plan  that  within  the  foundation  walls  the  sur- 
face shall  be  higher  than  the  surface  without,  unless  a 
basement  is  to  exist.  Also  the  durability  of  any  wall 
is  enhanced  by  providing  against  surface  water  or  seep- 
age reaching  it,  thus  giving  frost  an  added  advantage. 
In  certain  localities  a  sub-drainage,  by  means  of  tile, 
may  be  essential.  This  is  often  placed  just  beneath  or 
near  the  bottom  of  the  wall.  At  the  same  time  with 
water  drainage  one  must  study  the  local  conditions  as 
to  air  drainage,  remembering  that  cold  and  damp  air 
settles  rather  than  rises.  It  seems  needless  to  caution 
against  having  the  top  of  the  foundation  wall  higher 
than  the  ground  surface,  yet  such  mistakes  have  been 
made. 

The  materials  used  for  foundations  are  w^ood,  stone, 
brick  or  cement.  Choose  the  one  cheapest  and  best,  con- 
sidering durability.  Stone  or  brick  laid  in  cement  are 
excellent.  Grout  formed  by  using  gravel  five  parts  and 
cement  one  part,  well  mixed,  makes  an  excellent  foun- 
dation. Cement  and  gravel  are  mixed  dry  and  then 
with  water  to  flow  slowly.     If  sand  is  used  four  and  one 


152        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

respectively  is  better,  since  there  are  more  faces  to  ce- 
ment together  and  therefore  a  greater  surface  to  unite. 
Piers  of  cement,  stone  or  brick  are  excellent  where  warmth 
is  not  a  factor.  Cedar  posts  last  several  years.  Glazed 
draintile  set  upright  and  filled  with  cement  grout  make 
neat  and  durable  posts.  Adobe  or  sod  houses  require 
no  foundation  as  they  are  used  only  in  dry  climates. 

In  building  a  foundation  its  size  and  strength  depend 
entirely  upon  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be  used, 
the  soil  in  which  it  is  to  be  built  and  the  climate  in 
which  it  is  located.  In  a  sand  or  gravel  soil  or  in  a  very 
dry  climate,  freezing  plays  a  very  small  part  in  con- 
struction beyond  seeing  that  the  work  is  completed  and 
ripened  before  cold  weather  sets  in.  When  cement  or 
mortar  is  once  dry  freezing  will  not  injure  it  unless 
at  or  below  the  surface  in  case  there  is  moisture  pres- 
ent. In  dwelling  house  foundations  on  sand  or  gravel 
or  in  dry  climates,  the  walls  are  started  upon  the  surface 
unless  a  cellar  is  desired.  In  such  soil  frost  will  not 
heave  a  wall  or  moisture  harm  it  since  the  drainage  is 
perfect.  Therefore  no  necessity  exists  for  a  better  plan 
in  the  foundations  of  out-buildings  in  the  same  soil. 
In  heavy  soil  one  must  go  below  the  frost  line  of  that 
locality  if  heaving  is  to  be  entirely  avoided.  Heaving 
on  level  ground  where  the  thawing  and  settling  back 
would  be  uniform,  would  not  harm  a  small  and  strong 
building  to  any  extent,  but  might  be  injurious  to  adong 
building.  Upon  a  hillside  a  better  foundation  is  es- 
sential. 

The  thickness  of  a  wall  depends  upon  the  material 
used,  the  weight  it  will  be  required  to^carry,  the  climate 
and  the  soil.  In  a  heavy  soil,  in  coM,  moist  climates, 
where  heaving  is  frequent,  a  thicker  wall  has  greater  re- 
sisting power  against   the   lifting   or   pushing   of    frost. 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  153 

A  thin  wall  in  an  alley-way  or  cellar  will  frequently 
be  pushed  in  by  lateral  pressure.  Therefore  consider 
this  point  and  the  weight  of  the  building  in  deciding  the 
thickness  of  the  wall.  In  sand  or  gravel  one  has  only 
the  weight  of  the  building  to  consider.  Stone  laid  in 
mortar  would  need  to  be  thicker  than  a  good  grout 
wall.  Grout  is  used  from  six  to  twelve  inches  in  thick- 
ness while  a  stone  or  brick  wall  is  required  to  be  from 
eight  to  eighteen  inches. 

The  depth  depends  upon  the  soil  and  the  frost  line 
as  already  seen  and  whether  rodents  are  to  be  excluded 
or  a  cellar  used.  In  the  latter  case  the  depth  of  the  cel- 
lar would  govern ;  in  the  former  one  could  use  any  one  of 
several  plans.  If  a  cement  floor  is  to  be  laid,  then  a  depth 
of  wall  is  unnecessary  to  exclude  rodents.  A  wall 
three  feet  deep  is  rarely  burrowed  under.  If  that  depth 
of  full  width  foundation  is  not  needed,  a  narrow  ditch- 
ing spade  may  be  used  to  continue  a  narrow  trench 
which  may  be  filled  with  grout  or  with  cobble  stones 
over  which  may  be  poured  thin  cement.  Some  use  inch 
mesh  wire  netting  laid  flat  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch 
and  extending  six  inches  out  from  the  outer  edge  of 
the  wall  where  the  wall  is  to  be  shallow.  When  the 
rodent  gets  to  this  wire  it  gives  up  rather  than  burrow 
outward  and  away  from  the  wall.  This  netting  is  also  used 
in  a  similar  way  where  wooden  posts  are  employed, 
but  in  either  case  is  not  very  durable. 

Where  posts  are  used  it  is  quite  necessary  in  northern 
climates  to  keep  the  air  out  from  under  the  building 
during  the  winter.  This  may  be  done  by  boarding  up 
well  below  the  sills.  Some  bank  up  with  straw  or  other 
litter  during  the  winter.  A  good  foundation  is  more 
economical  when  labor,  material  and  comfort  are  all 
considered. 


154        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Insulation  Studies — Combined  with  proper  ventilation 
insulation  aims  to  protect  against  extremes  of  heat,  cold 
and  to  a  certain  degree  against  moisture.  This  is  accom- 
pHshed  by  means  of  a  proper  foundation  which  has 
been  discussed  and  by  a  good  roof  and  sides.  Some 
of  the  methods  of  constructing  the  roof  and  sides  wiU 
now  be  suggested. 

Heat  or  cold  penetrates  chiefly  by  contact  and  by  cur- 
rent. In  building,  both  these  factors  should  be  con- 
sidered, the  one  to  lessen,  the  other  to  avoid.  In  both 
roof  and  sides  the  same  elements  enter,  although  the 
shingles  in  the  roof  answer  to  the  boards  of  the  walls, 
and  the  attic  in  some  buildings  answers  to  the  dead  air 
space  allowed  between  the  walls.  The  method  employed 
must  rest  in  the  discretion  of  the  builder  Vv^hen  he  con- 
siders the  climatic  conditions  with  which  he  has  to 
contend. 

The  simplest  method  is  the  one-thickness  wall  of 
boards,  shingles  or  metal.  In  all  board  siding  the  lum- 
ber should  be  thoroughly  dry  to  avoid  subsequent  shrink- 
ing. If  matched,  the  tongue  and  groove  should  be  oiled 
before  using,  then  well  joined  against  sufficient  sup- 
porting timbers  and  well  nailed  to  avoid  warping.  If 
unmatched,  then  closely  laid  and  well  battened.  In 
either  case  lumber  placed  upright  rather  than  horizontal 
will  afford  a  dryer  interior  and  hence  a  warmer  house. 
The  reason  is  that  in  driving  rains  the  capillary  attrac- 
tion will  allow  water  to  creep  in  and  overflow  a  level, 
matched  joint,  while  in  the  upright  joint  the  grain  of 
the  wood  tends  to  draw  it  downward.  One  can  easily 
test  this  to  his  entire  satisfaction  by  using  the  same  ma- 
terial with  like  matched  joints  running  either  way.  The 
outer  surface  should  be  well  painted  to  protect  it  and 
allow  it  to  retain  less  moisture.     Thrift  and  attractive- 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  155 

ness  are  also  suggested  as  a  sufficient  reason  for  paint- 
ing. In  shingling  more  openings  exist  for  air  currents 
than  in  siding.  Metal  or  patent  roofing,  and  sidings 
are  more  current-proof  but  are  less  effective  against 
exterior  temperatures. 

Two  or  three  thicknesses  brought  together  are  often 
used  very  satisfactorily  in  different  climates.  They  are 
usually  quite  current-proof  and  transmit  by  contact  less 
readily.  In  the  roof  are  used  tight  roof  boards  upon 
which  paper  is  placed  and  over  which  shingles  are  laid 
or  patent  roofing  employed.  The  walls  are  sheathed 
well,  papered  and  then  matched  or  battened  lumber  or 
patent  siding  is  placed  over  both.  This  makes  a  warm 
building  which  is  free  from  draughts  if  well  built.  The 
cold  or  heat  will  penetrate  to  some  extent  although  shut 
off  fairly  well  by  the  paper  between  the  two  thicknesses 
of  boards  or  other  material. 

The  double  wall  with  a  dead  air  space  or  specially 
insulated  is  frequently  found.  In  some  cases  the  stud- 
ding or  rafters  separate  the  two  walls.  Special  care  must 
be  used  to  construct  a  double  wall  or  air  will  push 
through  the  outer  one  and  then  through  the  inner  one, 
making  very  little  better  protection  than  a  one-thickness 
wall.  To  overcome  this,  paper  is  usually  placed  within 
both  walls  and  should  be  held  closely  against  the  walls 
by  lath  or  other  strips.  If  this  is  not  done  the  paper 
will  soon  blow  apart  and  be  of  little  value.  Others 
fill  in  the  space  with  some  non-conducting  material 
such  as  hay,  straw,  or  sawdust.  This  often  becomes  a 
breeding  place  for  rodents.  Double  walls  are  also  made 
of  cement,  cement  blocks  or  by  the  regular  lath  and 
plaster  for  one  or  both  walls  on  both  sides  and  ceiling 
or  upon  the  rafters.  Cement  and  plaster  in  some  cli- 
mates is  quite  apt  to  be  damp    under    ordinary    care, 


156        Science  axd  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

while  in  others  warmth  and  lack  of  draughts  are  well 
secured  by  lath  and  plaster.  Double  walls  are  often 
erected  on  all  but  the  least  exposed  side. 

Doors  are  usually  placed  upon  the  least  exposed  side 
and  therefore  are  made  of  single  thickness  matched 
lumber  where  not  designed  for  ventilation.  In  any 
outside  wall  a  thorough  coating  of  paint  will  keep  out 
dampness  and  also  help  fill  the  joints,  thus  preventing 
air  circulation  unless  the  walls  be  of  cement,  stone  or 
brick. 

Incubator  Biiildijig  and  Its  Equipnioit — An  incuba- 
tor cellar  should  be  situated  conveniently  near  the  brood- 
er house.  Sometimes  it  is  an  integral  part  of  the  brood- 
er house,  being  made  under  the  same  roof  and  separated 
therefrom  by  a  double  wall.  Where  a  large  capacity 
is  not  desired  a  portion  of  a  cellar  under  a  dwelling 
house  may  be  remodeled  to  a  good  advantage.  In  any 
case  the  drainage  should  be  almost  perfect  or  at  least 
under  control  from  seepage  or  surface  water. 

The  sole  aim  in  constructing  a  special  place  for  in- 
cubation purposes  is  to  control  the  temperature,  humid 
ity,  and  purity  of  the  atmosphere  surrounding  the  incuba- 
tors. Otherwise  the  operator  would  be  compelled  to 
keep  a  constant  watch  over  his  machines  because  of 
the  ever  shifting  conditions  of  the  essentials  mentioned. 

There  are  several  types  of  incubator  cellars,  all  aim- 
ing at  the  same  result  and  all  securing  fairly  uniform 
conditions.  Proper  insulation  against  variations  of  tem- 
perature requires  careful  construction,  and  the  secur- 
ing of  protection  from  cold  is  no  more  expensive  than 
an  equal  protection  against  heat.  Therefore  climatic 
conditions  vary  the  types  but  little.  The  two  leading 
types  are  the  whole  cellar  and  the  half  cellar  structures, 
while  some  are  wholly  above  ground  where  made  neces- 


Poultry  Houses  axd  Yards  157 

sary  by  lack  of  drainage  or  the  utilizing  of  some  build- 
ing already  constructed.  The  advantage  claimed  for 
the  whole  cellar  is  a  more  even  temperature ;  for  the  half 
cellar,  better  ventilation  and  light.  Hillside  cellars  are 
often  used,  facing  either  east  or  west  to  avoid  direct 
sunlight  during  the  day  and  the  wintry  blasts  from  the 
north. 

Having  secured  a  proper  drainage  and  also  having 
excavated  properly  for  the  type  and  size  chosen,  one 
is  ready  for  the  foundation  and  side  walls.  The  type 
will  govern  the  depth  of  the  excavation.  A  whole  cel- 
lar built  in  level  ground  would  require  a  deeper  pit  than 
any  of  the  other  types.  The  size  will  depend  upon  the 
capacity  desired  and  may  be  determined  by  measuring 
the  standing  room  of  an  incubator  to  be  used,  and  from 
that  unit  compute  the  area  needed.  The  walls  and  floor- 
ing may  be  of  cement,  stone,  brick  or  plank.  If  the 
drainage  be  perfect,  side  walls  and  floors  of  dirt  may 
be  used,  or  a  natural  cave  in  some  countries  is  avail- 
able. Unless  located  in  a  dry  climate,  plank  will  decay 
and  give  off  an  ofifensive  odor.  In  the  all-cellar  plan  the 
end  walls  will  be  built  up  to  fit  the  roof  plan,  while  in 
the  half-cellar  plan  the  side  and  end  walls  are  of  equal 
height.  The  above-ground  plan  requires  merely  a  wall 
to  give  the  floor  protection  and  warmth.  The  hillside 
type  must  be  built  as  the  individual  location  may  sug- 
gest. The  floor  should  be  level.  All  woodwork  will  be 
benefited  by  painting.  Where  sills  are  used,  lay  them 
upon  the  foundation  in  cement  to  keep  out  all  draughts. 
The  cost  will  entirely  depend  upon  the  local  conditions, 
upon  the  type,  the  size  and  the  cost  of  available  materials. 

The  entrance  and  such  windows  as  are  needed  should 
be  double  to  assist  in  keeping  the  temperature  even  and 
the  air  sweet  and  wholesome.     Where  a  cellarwav  leads 


158        SciEXCE  AND  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

to  the  incubator  room  a  door  at  cither  end  is  preferable. 
The  windows  should  be  so  hung  as  to  allow  any  de- 
gree of  ventilation  desired.  Top  ventilation  for  the  in- 
coming air  has  the  most  advocates.  Protect  all  win- 
dows, skylights  or  ventilator  shafts  with  one-inch  mesh 
wire  netting. 

The  roofing  plays  a  more  important  part  than  that 
of  merely  turning  rain  and  snow.  It  must  also  insulate 
against  heat  and  cold.  In  a  whole  cellar  the  roof  may 
be  made  entirely  of  wood  slanting  one  or  both  ways, 
supported  by  the  beams  and  containing  a  dead  air  space. 
Shingles  or  prepared  roofing  may  cover  it.  On  the  other 
hand  many  are  roofed  with  rough  lumber  upon  which 
is  laid  straw  or  tar  paper  and  over  this  several  inches 
of  dirt.  In  either  of  the  above  methods  a  double  sky- 
light is  necessary.  In  all  other  plans  a  good  roof  in 
which  an  air  space  exists  will  serve  the  purpose  very 
well.  A  good  preservative  will  prolong  the  life  of  all 
wood  used. 

The  admittance  of  light  is  optional.  There  is  an  ad- 
vantage in  being  able  to  have  some  light  when  desired. 
It  can  always  be  excluded  by  a  handy  curtain  arrange 
ment.  The  direct  rays  of  the  sun  are  not  desirable, 
since  variation  in  temperature  results  and  sanitation  is 
easily  controlled  by  artificial  means. 

The  temperature  of  the  incubator  cellar  is  not  so  im- 
portant as  it  is  that  it  remain  even.  The  regulation  of 
the  machines  will  be  in  accordance  with  the  normal 
temperature.  Seldom  is  artificial  heat,  other  than  that 
given  off  by  the  incubator  lamps,  desirable  or  necessary. 
When  taking  the  hatch  ofif  during  cold  weather  it  is 
sometimes  well  to  raise  the  temperature  with  an  oil  stove 
if  it  be  below  sixty  degrees  in  the  cellar. 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  159 

Ventilation  is  all-important  in  incubation.  It  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  developing  embryo  in  the 
shell  is  a  living  organism  just  as  truly  as  the  same  life 
in  the  brooder,  and  hence  requires  pure  air  to  develop 
well.  The  incubator  has  no  way  to  tell  a  negligent 
operator  its  needs.  A  damp,  musty  place  is  not  fitted 
for  any  form  of  animal  life.'  Neither  is  a  dry,  vitiated 
atmosphere.  When  ventilation  is  secured  by  means  of 
windows  in  the  walls,  they  should  open  at  the  top  to 
deflect  the  incoming  air  upward.  If  shafts  are  used 
they  should  contain  a  regulator  for  better  control  upon 
windy  days  and  during  severe  weather. 

Within  the  incubator  room  a  convenient  arrangement 
will  save  much  time.  This  will  depend  upon  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  cellar.  A  dark  room  may  be  desir- 
able if  one  cannot  obtain  darkness  by  shades  upon  the 
windows.  Many  operators  do  all  candling  in  the  even- 
ing and  thus  do  not  need  a  dark  room.  Shelving  for 
needed  articles  is  always  handy.  A  chair,  a  table  upon 
casters,  an  egg  tester,  baskets,  trays,  lamps,  oil  recep- 
tacles and  a  supply  case  complete  the  equipment.  A 
hygrometer  is  a  valuable  instrument  and  almost  indis- 
pensable to  a  careful  operator. 

Brooder  Houses,  Coops  and  Their  Equipment — The 
situation  of  a  brooder  house  should  be  chosen  only  after 
a  careful  and  painstaking  study  of  the  local  conditions 
which  often  will  almost  entirely  govern  a  location.  Keep 
in  mind  the  location  of  the  incubator  house,  the  general 
plan  of  the  plant,  the  general  direction  of  the  winds, 
the  drainage,  the  natural  protection  from  wind,  the 
sunlight  and  such  other  items  as  will  make  for  conven- 
ience. Some  set  the  length  of  the  building  toward 
the  south  while  others  place  it  toward  the  east.  The 
former  claim   too   much   variation   in   temperature   with 


160        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

the  sun  shining  directly  into  the  runs  at  midday,  while 
the  latter  claim  that  the  early  and  late  sun  does  not 
give    equal    vigor   to   the    chicks.      Both    ways    succeed 


in  proper  hands.  The  one  requires  more  attention  to 
lighting;  the  other  to  regulate  the  temperature  evenly. 
These  same  considerations  apply  in  placing  an  out- 
door brooder  or  a  colony  coop  except  that  range  is 
also  at  times  to  be  considered. 

The   internal   arrana:ement    should   be    convenient    for 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards 


161 


the  operator,  easily  cleaned,  easily  ventilated,  vermin 
and  rodent  proof,  well  lighted,  evenly  heated,  com- 
fortable for  the  fowls  and  economical  in  cost. 

The  kind  of  house  or  coop  is  not  important  so  long 


as  the  above  essentials  are  complied  with.  The  aver- 
age brooder  house  is  sixteen  feet  wide  and  as  long  as 
the  demands  of  the  plant  require.  This  allows  of  a 
liberal  alley-way  lengthwise  of  the  house  which  is  usu- 


ally excavated  enough  so  that  the  operator  need  not 
stoop  when  attending  the  'broods.  Above  the  alley-way 
a    carrier    is    often   installed    which    saves    much    labor 


162        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

at  feeding  and  cleaning  times.  The  main  floor  is  di- 
vided into  runs,  which  should  have  provision  for  en- 
trance upon  the  main  floor  and  from  the  alley-way  and 
also  have  a  small  door  leading  to  the  outside  runs.    The 


doors  should  all  be  provided  with  automatic  devices 
to  open  and  close  without  extra  attention.  The  coops 
available  are  of  many  kinds,  as  is  shown  by  the  few 
types  given  in  the  illustration.  Coops  for  natural  and 
artificial  brooding  will  vary  somewhat  with  the  climate 
and  the  number  of  young  in  each  brood.  Each  coop 
must  be  dry,  warm  and  well  ventilated.  Ease  of  clean- 
ing and  tending  the  brood  are  just  as  essential  if  the 
profits  are  to  be  of  the  right  proportions. 

The  construction  of  every  detail  should  be  of  the  best. 
The  materials  used  should  be  durable  and  well  adapted 
to  the  purpose,  that  of  furnishing  warmth,  dryness  and 
evenness    of    temperature.      Considering    durability    and 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  163 

first  cost,  local  or  native  materials  may  be  utilized  in 
some  places.  The  floors  are  better  if  made  of  wood, 
although  cement  is  used  in  some  plants.  The  chief  ob- 
jection to  cement  floors  is  the  tendency  of  many  oper- 
ators to  allow  the  birds  to  touch  the  floor  instead  of 
seeing  that  litter  is  constantly  present  to  insure  pro- 
tection to  the  broods.     The  walls  and  roof  must  be  so 


constructed  that  an  even  temperature  may  be  maintained. 
An  extra  thickness  of  siding  is  much  cheaper  than  ex- 
tra fuel  or  loss  among  the  broods.  The  shape  of  the 
brooder  building  and  of  the  roof  thereon  is  left  to  the 
option  of  the  builder  who  is  referred  to  the  "  Relative 
Area  Studies  "  in  this  chapter.  The  long  brooder  house 
is  popular,  although  a  double  house  is  often  used.  The 
outdoor  coops  should  be  made  warm  and  substantial 
since  wind  and  storms  are  to  be  encountered  in  the  early 


164 


Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


spring.    Many  use  brooders  in  outdoor  colony  coops  with 
splendid  success. 

The  floor  space  per  fowl  in  the  brooding  houses  and 
coops  depends  somewhat  upon  the  age  of  the  chicks. 
Many  crowd  them  to  the  full  capacity  in  the  beginning, 


and  as  the  brood  develops  the  principle  of  the  sur- 
vival of  the  fittest  is  applied.  When  disease  thins  or 
destroys  the  brood,  they  give  up  the  business  as  an  un- 


166 


Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


profitable  one.  The  average  successful  operator  rarely 
gives  each  compartment  more  tlian  thirty-five  birds. 
The  outdoor  colonv  house  or  brooder  should  allow  one- 


half  of  a  square  foot  of  total  floor  space  for  each  chick 
or  other  young,  and  that  with  the  further  proviso  of 
a  small  yard  or  run  for  pleasant  weather.  As  they  grow 
older  and  more  crowded  the  hover  and  divisions  may  be 
taken  out,  giving  the  brood  the  entire  coop.  Over- 
crowding is  profitless.     The  space  per  individual  of  the 


Poultry  Houses  vvnd  Yards  167 

brood  in  a  brooder  house  should  be  more  Hberal.  One 
square  foot  to  each  is  usual.  The  capacity  of  some 
brooder  houses  is  doubled  or  trebled  by  shelf  brooding, 
which  is  the  placing  of  one  lioor  above  the  other,  always 
giving  the  top  shelf  to  the  younger  chicks  because  of 
the  higher  temperature  toward  the  top  of  the  room. 

The  runs  must  not  be  neglected,  so  that  in  all  pleasant 
weather  the  brood  may  have  freedom  and  exercise.  Lit- 
ter in  the  brooder  runs  and  in  the  day  chamber  of  the 
coop,  brooder  or  colony  house  will  induce  exercise  in 
stormy  weather.  The  outside  runs  should  be  so  con- 
structed that  they  may  allow  but  little  freedom  for  the 
young  brood,  but  as  they  grow  older  the  runs  may  be 
increased.  Then  in  case  of  sudden  storms  or  chilling 
winds  the  brood  will  find  no  difficulty  in  regaining  their 
proper  quarters.  Keep  the  brood  of  each  size  by  itself 
for  good  results.  This  is  accomplished  easily  by  means 
of  the  runs. 

The  lighting  in  a  brooder  house  should  be  good,  but 
avoid  an  excess  of  glass  because  of  its  effect  upon  the 
temperature  in  cold  weather  and  at  night.  The  same  is 
true  in  a  coop  or  colony  house  brooder.  Slanting  fronts 
are  used  by  some  in  the  construction  of  brooder  houses 
and  coops,  to  gain  more  direct  light.  Slanting  fronts 
must  be  well  built  to  keep  out  rain  or  melting  snow. 

The  correct  temperature  is  attained  in  the  brooder 
house  by  lamps,  stoves  or  a  heating  system.  Many  use 
individual  brooders,  one  in  each  pen,  and  depend  upon 
their  heat  alone  to  take  the  chill  out  of  the  air.  With 
two  or  three  compartment  brooders  this  may  work  out 
nicely.  Others  use  a  hard  coal  stove  to  supplement  their 
lamp  heat.  Nearly  all  the  large  plants  are  equipped 
with  a  steam-pipe  heating  system,  over  the  pipes  of 
which  in  each  pen  is  placed  a  hover  board.     With  any 


168  SCIKNCE  AND   ArT  OF    PoULTRY   CuLTURE 

mode  of  heating  the  secret  of  success  Hes  in  hokhng  an 
even  degree  of  temperature  and  so  arranged  that  the 
brood  can  seek  it  or  leave  it  easily.  Much  experiment- 
ing with  gasoline-heated  brooders  is  being  earned  on 
with  much  success. 

Ventilation  without  draught  is  the  keynote  to  all  brood- 
ing ;  therefore  in  all  construction  use  the  greatest  of 
care  in  providing  for  fresh  air.  This  one  point  is  of 
more  consequence  than  nearly  any  other  and  the  one 
the  least  studied  by  the  average  operator.  The  principles 
set  forth  in  "  \''entilation  Studies  "  apply  here. 

The  equipment  needed  in  the  average  brooding  house 
consists  mainly  of  good  brooders,  drinking  receptacles, 
feed  troughs  or  hoppers,  a  chick  marker,  grit  boxes,  a 
coal  bin,  a  boiler  for  vegetables,  mixing  troughs,  a 
spra}  pump,  buckets,  shovels  and  various  other  small 
appliances.  Low  movable  perches  at  weaning  time  must 
be  supplied. 

Coops  for  hen  and  chicks  and  growing  stock  should 
be  warm  and  well  ventilated.  They  should  be  handy  and 
easily  cleaned.  Rather  than  give  definite  descriptions 
of  each  type  a  few  styles  from  many  sources  will  be 
shown  which  may  be  studied  and  such  as  are  desired  may 
be  reproduced. 

General  Purpose  Houses  and  Their  Equipment — There 
are  various  types  of  utility  houses  in  use  throughout 
the  country.  They  are  serving  the  same  purpose  there- 
fore each  must  contain  certain  essential  parts  or  prin- 
ciples which  may  vary  according  to  the  tyyic  of  con- 
struction used  and  the  needs  of  each  particular  climate 
or  location.  That  one  type  is  superior  to  the  other  is 
entirely  a  matter  of  individual  choice  so  long  as  these 
essentials  are  present  and  properly  operated. 

The  location  of  the  houses  should  be  chosen  to  con- 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  169 

form  with  the  general  plan  of  the  plant.  The  general 
plan  doubtless  considered  every  matter  of  labor,  econ- 
omy and  convenience.  It  also  had  in  view  surface  drain- 
age, of  fresh  air  and  water  as  well  as  any  natural  pro- 
tection. The  one  who  plans  and  builds  each  individ- 
ual house  should  see  that  the  drainage  of  the  surface 
under  the  building  is  complete  or  that  the  walls  are  free 
from  standing  water,  also  that  they  face  in  a  direction 
to  obtain  proper  light. 

The  type  of  house  is  next  to  be  determined.  It  should 
harmonize  with  the  surroundings  and  yet  be  adequate  for 
the  purpose  intended.  No  type  will  suit  all  plans  or 
persons,  nor  yet  all  climates.  The  open  scratching  shed, 
the  curtain  front  house,  the  slanting  front  house,  the 
colony  house,  the  continuous  compartment  house,  •  the 
double  house,  and  many  others  are  types  which  are  the 
same  in  essentials  yet  vary  in  their  application.  Each 
type  must  supply  fresh  air  without  draughts,  light  prop- 
erly admitted,  protection  from  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold,  freedom  from  moisture,  opportunity  for  the  fowls 
to  exercise,  cleanliness  of  quarters  and  a  reasonable 
first  cost  as  well  as  economy  of  operation.  To  obtain 
these  no  one  can  advise  a  certain  type  unless  the  loca- 
tion, the  local  environment,  the  amount  of  land  pos- 
sessed, the  capital  to  be  invested,  the  labor  available, 
the  purpose,  the  climatic  conditions  and  many  other  fac- 
tors are  known.  The  continuous  houses  are  more  eco- 
nomical in  first  cost,  are  warmer  because  less  exposed,, 
require  less  labor  to  operate,  although  they  do  not  give 
the  range  or  yard  room  that  colony  or  individual  build- 
ings permit.  Types  of  buildings  best  adapted  to  water- 
fowl, pheasants  and  pigeons  will  be  discussed  more  fully 
under  chapters  devoted  to  those  fowls. 

"  Foundation  Studies  "  elsewhere  in  this  chapter  have 


170        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

given  such  principles  as  apply  in  general  purpose  houses. 
iMaterials  are  also  there  discussed.  Rodent-proof  walls 
and  floors  are  economy  when  the  trouble  and  loss 
of  feed  by  rodents  are  considered. 

The  matter  of  fresh  air  has  been  presented  under 
"  Ventilation  Studies  "  in  this  chapter.  Fresh  air  without 
draughts  is  essential,  yet  what  would  do  in  a  southern 
house  would  be  rather  harsh  in  the  more  rigorous 
northern  climate.  One  can  carry  any  good  idea  to  ex- 
tremes and  the  fresh  air  idea  has  often  been  thus  treat- 
ed. When  furnished  a  place  where  they  may  find  pro- 
tection, fresh  air  will,  never  injure  fowls,  but  when  cer- 
tain temperatures  are  reached  enough  air  should  be 
excluded  to  enable  the  food  and  body  warmth  to  pro- 
tect them.  Fresh  air  is  not  injurious,  but  the  extremes 
of  temperature  and  moisture  are  the  evils  to  avoid  and 
must  be  considered  at  the  same  time. 

Lighting  is  essential  yet  one  must  avoid  extremes. 
Note  in  this  connection  the  "  Relative  Area  Studies  " 
in  the  earlier  part  of  this  chapter.  Take  advantage  of 
all  the  sunshine  possible  with  such  openings  as  are 
needed,  but  use  caution  in  the  amount  of  glass  or  open- 
ings placed  in  a  building.  One  must  constantly  guard 
against  extremes  of  temperature  and  to  avoid  draughts. 
The  open  shed,  the  open  front  and  other  similar  plans 
may  work  admirably  in  certain  climates  and  locations, 
yet  in  others  they  should  have  some  means  of  shutting 
out  wind  and  cold,  either  by  means  of  glass  or  by  cloth. 
In  closed  buildings  we  deem  two  medium-sized  sash 
to  each  pen  sufificient  where  the  capacity  is  from  twenty 
to  forty  fowls.  While  light  is  desired  and  while  we  prefer 
it  to  come  from  the  most  protected  side,  yet  local  con- 
ditions may  vary  the  location  of  the  openings.  Do  not 
shut  off  plenty  of  fresh  air  in  any  plan  adopted. 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  171 

The  temperature  of  general  purpose  houses,  as  in  all 
others,  should  be  kept  as  nearly  uniform  as  is  practical. 
There  are  advocates  of  artificial  heat  for  utility  stock 
as  well  as  for  breeding  stock.  While  they  claim  that 
less  food  is  required  and  less  loss  of  vigor  results,  yet 
on  the  other  hand  those  opposed  claim  it  weakens  the 
constitution  of  the  fowl  to  resist  weather  changes  and 
that  the  fuel  used  would  pay  for  any  extra  food  con- 
sumed. They  also  claim  stronger  chicks  from  natural 
conditions.  If  artificial  heat  is  used  great  care  must 
be  exercised  to  maintain  an  even  temperature  and  in 
the  spring  to  wean  them  gradually  from  the  artificial 
heat.  At  all  times  draughts  must  be  kept  out  of  the 
houses.  Nothing  is  more  fatal  to  poultry  than  draughts 
of  air  even  though  they  be  slight.  Colds  and  finally 
roup  are  the  logical  result.  It  is  just  as  important  to 
observe  this  caution  during  the  summer  as  it  is  in  win- 
ter. Cloth  windows  or  doors  should  be  used  rather 
than  openings  through  which  the  wind  may  blow.  Cur- 
tains about  and  above  the  roosts  will  insure  protection 
from  cold  and  draughts  at  night.  Some  plants  in  north- 
ern climates  use  a  brooder  lamp  in  their  houses  during 
the  snappiest  weather  or  when  dampness  seems  to  be 
too  prevalent.  Care  should  be  exercised  against  the  use  of 
too  much  glass  in  a  house  since  it  tends  to  vary  the  tem- 
perature too  rapidly.  Dampness  must  be  kept  from  the 
buildings.  Dampness  is  the  result  of  vapor  condensa- 
tion. This  vapor  comes  from  the  breath  of  the  fowls, 
from  the  droppings  and  from  the  water  receptacles.  It 
may  also  come  from  a  damp  floor.  This  moisture  afifects 
the  temperature  unless  it  be  allowed  to  escape  hf  prop- 
er ventilation.  A  fowl  can  resist  a  low  temperature 
if  the  air  is  dry,  but  when  it  is  damp  evil  results  are 


172        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

bound  to  follow. 

The  floor  and  air  space  required  for  each  fowl  will 
depend  upon  the  breed  and  the  housing  used  as  well 
as  upon  the  care  given.  Where  care  has  been  exercised 
and  where  almost  free  range  was  available  good  results 
have  been  secured  with  a  floor  space  of  three  square  feet 
and  an  air  space  of  ten  cubic  feet  per  fowl.  However, 
this  is  not  advisable  as  a  general  practice.  The  aver- 
age condition  would  warrant  giving  each  fowl  from  five 
to  ten  square  feet  of  floor  space  and  from  twenty  to 
thirty  cubic  feet  of  air  space.  The  climatic  condition 
must  necessarily  vary  the  space  required  per  fowl.  No 
hard  and  fast  rule  is  applicable  anywhere.  The  best  re- 
sults come  from  a  flock  of  twenty-five  or  thirty,  and 
smaller  number  of  ducks,  geese  or  turkeys.  Larger 
flocks  do  well  with  proper  floor  and  air  space  and  give 
a  good  net  profit  in  the  commercial  sense.  Breeding 
stock  should  not  be  crowded  for  high  fertility. 

Scratching  floors  are  usually  the  living  room  floors 
except  in  the  houses  of  the  scratching  shed  type.  In 
speaking  of  the  floor  space  per  fowl  the  area  usually 
includes  the  scratching  floor.  Exercise  being  one  of 
the  main  items  of  success  with  poultry  no  plan  should 
be  without  this  floor  space  devoted  to  scratching  litter. 
The  droppings  board,  the  water  receptacle  shelf,  the  wall 
hoppers,  and  the  vegetable  holder  leave  the  entire  floor 
free  to  the  fowls  for  their  litter.  In  the  scratching  shed 
type  of  house  one  must  shut  out  the  snow  and  rain  that 
the  litter  may  be  kept  dry.  The  dust  has  a  better  op- 
portunity to  escape  in  the  latter  type.  The  floor  should 
be  dry  regardless  of  its  material,  but  if  of  cement,  thelitter 
should  be  of  sufficient  depth  to  keep  the  fowls  from 
touching  its  cold  surface. 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  173 

Alley-ways  are  an  expensive  luxury  and  are  not  em- 
ployed in  many  poultry  houses.  The  chief  reasons  ad- 
vanced against  them  are  their  expense,  the  room  they  oc- 
cupy and  the  taking  of  the  attendant  away  from  among  the 
fowls,  which  last  is,  in  the  opinion  of  many,  the  most 
serious  objection  of  all.  Many  beginners  install  alley- 
ways in  utility  houses  to  remove  them  later.  If  one  is 
desired  it  should  be  made  on  the  side  of  the  house 
which  is  away  from  the  sun  and  as  narrow  as  practi- 
cable, so  that  all  available  space  shall  be  kept  for  the 
fowls. 

The  droppings  board  is  found  in  all  well-appointed 
poultry  houses  to  catch  and  retain  the  offal  until  it  can 
be  removed  by  the  attendant  each  day  or  as  often  as 
is  advisable.  This  board  should  extend  ten  inches  be- 
yond the  roosts  in  every  direction  and  upon  all  but  one 
side  a  narrow  strip  should  be  nailed  to  keep  the  contents 
from  littering  up  the  floor.  It  is  better  to  be  made  of 
matched  lumber.  Support  the  board  from  above,  using 
the  same  supports  which  are  used  for  the  roosts.  Use 
land  plaster,  ashes  or  dry  dirt  to  absorb  the  droppings. 
When  cleaning  the  board  the  attendant  can  note  the 
condition  of  the  fowl  as  indicated  by  the  droppings. 
When  fairly  firm  and  containing  a  whitish  substance 
at  the  side  or  end,  the  droppings  are  normal.  The  whit- 
ish substance  answers  to  the  urinal  discharges  of  animals. 

Roosts  should  be  made  comfortable  and  at  the  same 
time  one  should  gauge  their  height  and  size  to  con- 
form with  the  age  and  breed  of  poultry  kept.  A  nearly 
flat  roost  somewhat  rounded  at  the  edges  is  the  most 
popular  and  the  size  should  be  somewhat  smaller  for 
the  lighter  breeds  and  still  smaller  for  young  stock. 
Soft  wood  is  much  better  than  hard  wood  since  it  is 
easier  on  the   foot   and   less   liable  to  splinter.     Every 


174        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

three  months  all  roosts  should  be  well  treated  with  crt- 
olin,  zenolum,  crude  oil  or  other  similar  preparation. 
]\lites  will  not  bother  poultry  roosting  on  such  sub- 
stances. The  height  of  the  roosts,  to  avoid  bumblefoot 
and  other  evils,  should  vary  from  one  foot  with  young 
stock  to  two  or  three  feet  with  the  heavy  breeds  and 
slightly  higher  if  desired  for  the  lighter  breeds.  Waterfowl 
need  no  roosts.  Turkeys  are  desirous  of  a  fairly  high  roost- 
ing place.  All  roosts  should  be  placed  upon  a  level 
to  avoid  undue  crowding  upon  the  rear  roosts  where 
higher  than  those  in  front.  A  droppings  board  is  always 
cleanly  and  a  friend  of  the  fowl  if  properly  cared  for. 
During  cold  weather  and  in  open  houses  a  cloth  cur- 
tain which  will  hang  upon  every  side  of  the  roosts  as 
w^ell  as  above  the  fowls  will  save  frosting  the  combs 
and  wattles  of  the  stock.  There  w^ill  be  sufficient  circu- 
lation of  air  through  the  cloth  curtain  at  the  top  for  ven- 
tilation, while  enough  of  the  body  heat  wall  be  retained 
for  warmth.  During  the  day  time  the  curtains  may  be 
raised.  At  intervals  they  should  be  fumigated  or  sprayed 
with  a  disinfectant.  The  roosts  should  be  removable. 
Some  make  a  notch  in  the  supports  into  which  the 
roosts  drop  while  others  nail  cleats  on  the  roosts  to  fit 
on  either  side  of  the  supports.  Each  fowl  should  have 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  of  room  upon  the  roost,  de- 
pending upon  its  age  and  breed.  Locate  roosts  away 
from  all  doors  or  other  openings  and  support  them  from 
above,  leaving  the  floor  space  free. 

Nests  should  be  sweet,  clean  and  plentiful.  At  least 
one  nest  to  each  four  hens  should  be  provided.  To  in- 
sure ease  of  cleaning  they  should  be  so  constructed  that 
either  the  bottom  or  one  side  is  removable.  All  nest- 
ing materials  are  thus  readily  removed  and  a  spray  or 
brush   may   easily   reach   all  parts.      Some   secluded   or 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  175 

dark  place  is  often  sought  for  by  a  fowl  and  because 
of  this  tendency  many  place  the  nests  under  the  drop- 
pings board  or  against  the  wall  and  allow  the  hens  to 
enter  them  from  the  dark  side.  Less  quarreling  and 
its  consequent  evils  result  from  this  seclusion.  The  nests 
should  not  be  placed  too  high  for  any  fowl.  The  water- 
fowls usually  lay  upon  the  floor  litter  or  in  the  yards  and 
some  lay  during  the  night  or  very  early  in  the  morning. 
The  size  of  the  nests  vary  according  to  the  needs  of  the 
fowl  kept.  A  Bantam  and  a  turkey  W'Ould  not  fit  the 
same  nest.  The  nest  of  an  average  hen  should  be  at 
least  one  foot  square.  The  front  of  any  nest  should 
be  a  narrow  board  to  keep  the  nesting  materials  in  place 
and  the  eggs  from  rolling  out.  Place  an  alighting  board 
in  front  of  each  nest.  Nests  with  wire  doors  are  often 
very  handy.  The  nesting  materials  should  be  soft  and 
pliable.  Soft  hay,  straw  and  leaves  are  good  materials 
for  the  purpose.  Sawdust  stains  the  eggs  and  excel- 
sior is  too  harsh.  Pains  should  be  taken  to  hollow  out 
and  settle  well  each  nest,  giving  it  a  China  or  other  arti- 
ficial nest  egg.  The  thin  shelled  China  egg  is  excellent 
since  it  is  easil}-  warmed  by  the  body  heat  of  the  fowl. 

Trapnests  are  the  most  valuable  equipment  known  to 
the  poultr}-  breeder.  Without  them  labor  and  investment 
must  increase  or  results  be  uncertain.  There  are  many 
kinds  upon  the  market  but  homemade  devices  are  com- 
mon, some  of  which  are  given. 

In  one  trapnest  the  box  is  twenty-eight  inches  long, 
fourteen  inches  high  and  twelve  inches  wide.  Within 
this  box  is  placed  a  second  box,  eleven  inches  square 
and  five  inches  high,  which  contains  the  nesting  ma- 
terial and  which  may  be  shoved  lengthwise  in  the 
longer  box.  The  bottom  of  the  main  box  should  be 
of   slats  two  inches  in  width  and  placed  one-fourth  of 


176        Science  and  Akt  of  I'uultrv  Culture 

an  inch  apart.  One  end  of  the  box  may  be  soHd  or 
slatted.  At  the  entrance  end  of  the  box  a  door  should 
be  fitted  and  hinged  at  the  top  so  that  it  will  swing 
inward  and  upward,  leaving  an  inch  opening  when 
closed  down,  for  air  and  the  extension  of  the  peg.  Nail 
a  cleat  upon  one  side  against  which  the  door  may  swing 
when  closing.  This  door  may  be  made  of  narrow 
strips  to  permit  of  more  ventilation  and  also  allow  the 
operator  an  opportunity  to  observe  the  interior  of  the 
nest  when  it  is  closed.  Next,  take  some  stiff  number 
six  iron  wire  twenty-one  inches  long.  At  one  end  bend 
three  inches  of  its  length  to  form  a  right  angle  and  at 
the  other  end  a  similar  bend  of  nine  inches  so  that 
both  legs  are  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  remain- 
ing part  of  the  wire  which  should  also  measure  nine 
inches  in  length.  Now  bend  one  inch  of  the  three-inch 
leg  to  point  away  from  and  at  right  angles  to  the  other 
leg.  The  end  of  the  longer  leg  is  now  bent  in  such 
a  manner  that  it  forms  a  loop  two  inches  wide,  the 
leg  and  loop  now  measuring  six  or  seven  inches.  The 
loop  should  be  bent  so  that  the  flat  of  the  loop 
will  be  at  right  angles  to  the  length  or  body  of  the  wire. 
It  is  now  ready  to  fasten  lengthwise  to  the  middle  of  the 
top  of  the  main  box.  The  center  of  the  loop  leg  should 
hang  directly  over  the  nest  box  when  that  is  shoved  to 
the  rear  of  the  main  box,  and  the  short  end  of  the 
wire  should  miss  the  raised  door  by  one-fourth  of  an 
inch.  Fasten  loosely  yet  securely  at  each  end  by  a  staple 
driven  into  the  top  of  the  main  box.  Next,  bore  a 
small  hole  into  the  lower  edge  of  the  door  at  a  place 
opposite  the  point  of  wire  on  the  small  leg.  Into  this 
hole  drive  a  triangular  peg  each  face  of  which  measures 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  across  and  see  that  a  flat  side 
is  down  and  projecting  one-half  inch  beyond  the  edge 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  177 

of  the  door.  The  nest  is  now  ready  for  operation.  The 
door  is  raised  until  the  ridge  or  top  of  the  triangular 
peg  strikes  the  wire  point  which  crowds  the  wire  aside 
until  it  falls  under  the  flat  side  of  the  peg  and  holds 
the  door  up  and  open.  A  hen  enters  the  box,  seeks  the 
nest  and  thereby  crowds  the  long  or  loop  leg  to  one  side 
which  action  slips  the  wdre  point  from  below  the  door 
peg  allowing  the  door  to  drop.  The  attendant  takes 
the  band  number  and  releases  the  fowl,  marks  the  egg 
and  resets  the  trapdoor.  A  series  of  these  nests  may 
easily  be  made,  allowing  the  under  side  of  a  droppings 
board  to  be  the  top.  Across  the  rear  ends  may  be  a 
hinged  board  which,  when  let  down,  makes  a  dark  en- 
trance to  each  nest  when  not  used  as  a  trapnest.  In 
this  event  the  cleat  which  holds  the  door  from  opening 
outward  should  be  removed  to  allow  an  attendant 
to  gather  the  eggs  from  the  front  as  well  as  to  allow 
the  nest  to  be  drawn  tiway  from  the  rear  entrance. 
The  hinges  in  this  plan  should  permit  the  door  to  open 
either  way.  To  hold  the  door  shut  without  a  cleat, 
a  piece  of  number  thirty  sheet  brass,  eight  or  ten  inches 
long  and  one  inch  wide,  bent  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
form  a  catch  opening,  with  an  inclined  or  slanting  ap- 
proach at  either  side  of  this  catch  depression,  is  ex- 
cellent. Tack  the  longer  end  to  the  floor  of  the  main 
box  so  that  the  catch  depression  is  beneath  the  lower 
edge  of  the  closed  door.  Open  the  door  and  bend  the 
brass  strip  upward  until  the  depression  will  hold  the 
door  in  position  when  closed.  When  properly  placed  and 
bent  correctly  the  falling  door  will  strike  the  slanting 
surface  of  the  brass  strip,  forcing  it  down  until  the  de- 
pression catches  the  door  and  locks  it  in  position.  An 
alighting  board  should  be  in  front  of  every  nest. 

A  trapnest  wdiich  is  quite  effectual  is  made  like  the 


178        Science  and  Art  of  Poultrv  Culture 

one  above  except  as  to  the  door  and  trap  features  which 
are  as  follows :  The  main  door  is  hinged  at  the  side 
and  contains  in  its  lower  portion  a  smaller  door,  seven 
inches  square,  which  slides  upward  by  means  of  a  stiff 
iron  wire  on  either  side  bent  and  stapled  at  the  ends. 
The  door  is  fastened  to  these  wire  sliding  posts  by 
means  of  staples  driven  over  the  wires  and  loosely 
into  the  door.  This  door  may  be  merely  a  frame  cov- 
ered with  slats  or  netting  to  allow  one  to  view  the  in- 
terior of  the  nest.  Into  the  center  of  the  top  of  the 
opening  or  smaller  doorway  drive  in  a  staple  about 
half  way.  Take  a  heavy  iron  or  steel  wire  about  four 
feet  long  and  fold  it  closely  together  with  the  ends  even. 
Bend  one  and  one-quarter  inches  of  the  closed  end 
(opposite  the  two  ends)  at  right  angles  to  the  length 
of  the  wires.  Five  inches  from  this  bend,  again  bend 
the  wires  at  right  angles  to  run  parallel  to  the  short 
length.  Once  more  bend  the  wires  at  right  angles 
six  or  seven  inches  from  the  last  bend,  which  will  make 
the  final  part  of  the  wires  parallel  to  the  five-inch  length 
Now  spread  these  two  wires  apart  just  above  the  inch 
and  one-quarter  length  so  that  the  rest  of  the  wires 
are  about  four  inches  apart  and  parallel.  Now  the 
five-inch  length  of  each  wire  is  placed  against  the  up- 
per portion  of  the  main  door  and  loosely  stapled  at 
the  bend  of  each  wire  so  that  the  short  length  of  wire 
passes  through  the  staple  first  driven  into  the  lower 
side  of  the  opening,  thus  allowing  the  trapdoor,  when 
raised,  to  rest  upon  its  tip  end.  The  staple  assists  this 
tip  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  trapdoor.  Six  inches  from 
the  doorway  the  loose  ends  of  the  wires  should  hang 
within  a  few  inches  of  the  floor  in  the  front  part  of 
the  nest  and  be  four  inches  from  each  other  and  from 
the   sides  of  the   coop.     The   hen  passes   into   the  nest, 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  179 

brushing-  past  the  hanging  wires  which  are  moved,  there- 
by throwing  forward  the  inch  and  one-quarter  or  trip 
wire  from  under  the  door,  which  drops  into  place.  The 
hen  is  now  a  prisoner.  If  made  well  this  plan  is  auto- 
matic in  setting.  The  main  door  is  opened,  bring- 
ing out  of  the  way  all  wires  so  that  one  may  draw 
out  the  nest-box  or  remove  the  fowl  imprisoned. 

Still  another  trapnest  which  is  quite  convenient  and 
easily  made  is  as  follows :  Instead  of  a  door  in  front 
of  a  two-compartment  nest,  take  an  inch  board  twelve 
inches  wide  and  three  feet  long.  At  each  end  attach 
crosswise  an  inch  piece  to  avoid  warping.  Fourteen 
inches  from  one  end  attach  a  pair  of  hinges  with  which 
fasten  the  board  to  the  lower  and  front  end  of  the 
nest  in  such  manner  as  will  allow  the  board,  when 
free,  to  swing  perpendicularly.  This  forms  a  door  to 
the  nest,  the  longer  end  of  the  board  hanging  down- 
ward keeps  the  opening  above  closed  by  holding  the 
short  end  in  place  against  the  opening  to  the  nest.  By 
swinging  the  lower  portion  of  the  board  upwards  and 
against  the  bottom  of  the  nestbox,  one  will  discover 
that  the  short  end  or  door  now  forms  an  alighting 
step  for  the  hen  as  she  enters  the  nest.  In  the  bot- 
tom of  the  nest  three  or  four  inches  from  the  center 
of  the  doorway  bore  a  hole  about  one  inch  in  diame- 
ter. Insert  a  screw  eye  into  the  lower  portion  of  the 
trapdoor  boar/il  so  that  when  the  board  is  raised  to  al- 
low the  hen  to  enter,  the  top  of  the  screw  eye  will 
have  passed  up  through  and  above  the  hole  at  least  a 
half-inch.  Now  the  trap  feature  must  be  arranged  to 
hold  the  board  in  a  horizontal  position  until  it  is  sprung. 
This  consists  of  an  arm  at  one  end  of  which  is  a  cross- 
bar and  at  the  other  end  a  bent  iron  wire,  which  just 
hooks  into  the  screw  eve.     Near  the  crossbar  end  of 


180        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

the  arm  is  attached  a  hinge  which  in  turn  fixes  this 
arm  to  the  edge  of  the  inner  nest.  The  iron  wire  is 
fastened  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  arm  and  of  such 
length  and  angle  as  to  just  catch  and  hold  the  screw 
eye.  The  hen  flies  upon  the  apparent  lighting  board, 
enters  the  box  and  quietly  steps  upon  the  two-inch 
crossbar  of  wood  (at  the  edge  of  the  nest),  which 
lowers  because  of  her  weight  and  thus  draws  the  iron 
hook  out  of  the  screw  eye,  permitting  the  board  to 
drop  into  place.  She  is  now  a  prisoner.  The  main 
point  to  watch  in  building  this  trapnest  is  to  see  that 
the  portion  of  the  arm  which  bears  the  iron  hook,  is 
slightly  heavier  than  that  portion  which  bears  the  cross- 
bar. Adjust  this  when  the  hinge  is  placed.  The  length 
of  the  main  nestbox  will  determine  the  length  of  the 
arm.  The  crossbar  is  always  just  within  the  edge  of 
the  inner  nestbox  which  should  be  merely  a  five-inch 
crosspiece  within  the  main  box,  the  floor  of  which  lets 
down  for  cleaning.  Were  an  inner  box  left  movable 
as  in  the  first  two  plans,  the  trap  feature  would  not 
prove  easy  of  adjustment  from  time  to  time.  A  long 
box  in  any  plan  saves  the  plumage  of  the  birds  as  well 
as  makes  them  less  liable  to  be  frightened.  The  door 
may  be  made  of  a  mere  framework  or  of  lath  if  de- 
sired. To  make  it  into  a  regular  nest  take  a  spike  or 
piece  of  wire  and  pass  it  through  the  screw  eye  to 
hold  the  board  in  position. 

There  are  many  other  types  of  trapnest  but  enough 
have  been  described  to  give  any  practical  person  a 
choice.  Variations  may  be  made  in  these  to  fit  any 
house  or  plan.  If  one  has  plenty  of  room  for  runs 
the  nests  may  be  left  open  at  the  back  side  and  each 
leading  into  a  separate  compartment,  thus  doing  away 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  181 

with  Ijhe  caretaker's  frequent  visits  to  release  the 
fowls. 

A.  cock  cage  or  broody  coop  may  be  placed  upon 
the  wall  or  in  some  convenient  place  out  of  the  way  of 
the  attendant  and  where  draughts  will  not  strike  it. 
The  bottom  should  be  slatted ;  it  should  be  curtained 
for  cold  nights  and  contain  hanging  food  and  water 
receptacles. 

Exit  doors  for  fowls  should  be  large  enough  to  allow 
the  breed  kept  to  pass  through  easily  and  should  be 
about  eight  inches  from  the  floor  to  avoid  the  litter 
being  scratched  out.  The  doors  should  be  placed  up- 
on the  yarding  side,  yet  in  the  position  least  subject 
to  draughts  upon  the  inmates.  They  should  also  be 
placed  away  from  the  attendant's  door  to  permit  of 
a  better  retreat  from  the  fowls  in  case  they  are  easily 
frightened,  as  happens  in  some  of  the  lighter  breeds. 

Upon  many  of  the  larger  farms  or  plants,  an  auto- 
matic release  or  exit  from  the  poultry  house  has  been 
adopted  to  keep  out  night  "  varmints  "  and  yet  permit 
early  rising  on  the  part  of  the  fowls.  This  is  built  up- 
on the  trapnest  plan  reversed  so  that  the  screen  door 
opens  at  the  far  end  as  the  fowl  enters  the  runway. 
At  night  the  operator  shuts  the  trap  door  and  at  day- 
break as  the  fowl  seeks  the  yard  it  enters  from  the 
runway,  steps  upon  the  trip  or  false  floor  which'  re- 
leases the  door,  causing  it  to  open  for  the  day.  From 
without  no  prowling  marauders  may  enter  the  house, 
The  door  may  also  be  permanently  secured  by  a  hook 
if  desired. 

Dust-boxes  are  almost  an  absolute  necessity  in  a 
poultry  house  even  though  it  makes  the  air  very  dirty 
and  dusty  for  the  fowls  to  breathe.  In  the  open  scratch- 
ing shed  this  is  largely  avoided  whereas  in  the  average 


182        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

house  they  are  placed  in  the  living  room.  A  small 
box  with  a  glass  side  to  the  sun,  into  which  the  fowls 
may  enter  by  a  small  door  will  save  much  dust  in  the 
main  room.  The  fowl  enters,  dusts  herself  and  comes 
out.  The  only  dust  in  the  main  room  comes  through 
the  small  door  or  from  the  fowl  as  she  shakes  herself 
upon  emerging  from  the  dust-box.  Good  soil  finely 
pulverized  or  sifted  coal  ashes,  into  which  is  mixed  a 
little  land  plaster  or  dirt,  make  a  good  dusting  material. 
Dry,  fine  and  light  dust  kills  lice  effectually. 

Water  receptacles  should  be  of  such  capacity  that  they 
will  require  filling  but  once  a  day,  although  in  warm 
or  cold  weather  attention  should  be  given  them  much 
more  often.  It  should  be  of  material  that  will  not  break 
when  roughly  handled,  light  in  weight,  easily  cleaned 
and  not  break  when  its  contents  are  frozen.  The  ma- 
terial best  fitting  these  requirements  and  at  the  same 
time  reasonable  in  cost,  is  a  good  grade  of  galvanized 
iron.  The  top  should  be  larger  than  the  bottom  and  the 
latter  corrugated.  A  cover  should  be  over  all  water 
receptacles  to  keep  the  water  pure.  This  cover  may  be 
in  the  form  of  an  inverted  fountain  or  receptacle  hold- 
ing the  required  amount  of  water  which  feeds  into 
the  pan  through  a  small  hole  at  the  water  level 
in  the  pan.  When  the  water  is  lowered  by  use 
or  evaporation  to  a  point  which  exposes  the  hole, 
air  enters  the  tank  or  fountain,  allowing  water  to  flow 
into  the  pan  untjl  the  hole  is  again  covered  with  water, 
when  further  flow  ceases.  Where  open  pans  are  used 
a  slanting  cover  of  wire  or  slats  attached  to  the  wall 
above  the  water  stand,  will  keep  fowls  from  be- 
fouling the  water,  yet  allowing  them  to  drink  freely. 
To  fill  or  remove  the  pan,  lift  the  protecting  cover. 
A  water  stand  is  a  low,  slatted  shelf  attached  to  the  wall. 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  183 

When  upon  this  shelf,  no  Htter  is  scratched  into  the 
water.  The  shelf  stand  takes  no  floor  space  from  the 
fowls. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  water  receptacles  up- 
on the  market,  some  of  which  are  arranged  to  be 
heated  by  means  of  a  small  lamp,  in  the  cold  winter 
weather.  Some  operators  advocate  feeding  snow  dur- 
ing the  winter  months,  placing  it  in  open  recep- 
tacles or  allowing  the  birds  to  go  out  of  doors  for  it. 
Plenty  of  fresh  water  will  certainly  not  harm  or  dis- 
please any  flock. 

Vegetable  holders  avoid  needless  waste  and  keep  the 
green  food  free  from  dirt  and  filth.  Some  operators 
use  a  board  through  which  have  been  driven  nails  or 
spikes,  depending  upon  the  age  of  the  chicks.  Upon 
these  nails  are  placed  potatoes,  cabbage  or  other  desired 
vegetable.  When  not  in  use,  these  boards  may  be 
hung  upon  the  wall.  If  the  nails  or  spikes  are  driven 
in  slantingly  the  board  may  be  hung  upon  the  wall 
while  in  use  by  older  fowls.  An  excellent  vegetable 
holder  is  made  by  suspending  a  box  by  two  parallel 
corners,  one  side  of  which  has  very  thin,  narrow  slats 
or  rods  placed  three-quarters  of  an  inch  apart.  This 
side  will  hang  below  at  a  slant  and  one  of  the  upper 
sides  will  answer  as  a  cover  through  which  the  box 
may  be  filled.  .  As  the  fowls  pick  the  vegetables  from 
below,  those  above  keep  sliding  down  to  replace  those 
eaten.  This  same  plan  may  be  used  against  a  wall 
like  a  feed  hopper.  Some  use  inch  wire  mest  formed 
into  a  hopper,  the  chief  objection  to  which  is  the  tear- 
ing of  the  combs  upon  the  meshes. 

An  overhead  trolley  and  carrier  in  all  continuous 
houses  reduces  the  labor  expense.  Upon  the  carrier 
may  be  placed  water,  food,  oil  and  all  other  necessary 


184        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

supplies,  thus  saving  other  trips  for  these  various  ar- 
ticles. At  cleaning  time  the  same  saving  may  be  at- 
tained. 

A  simple  catching  hook  used  by  the  author  and  by 
others  consists  of  a  heavy  wire  bent  as  shown  in  the 
illustration  given.  The  extra  bend  at  the  end  of  the 
hook  is  to  keep  the  wire  from  injuring  the  birds.  The 
handle  is  one  taken  from  an  old  broom  or  mop.     The 


handle  is  not  necessary  if  the  wire  be  long  enough  to 
form  a  handle.  The  wooden  handle  not  only  makes  tlie 
catcher  more  stifif  but  the  chickens  watch  it  closely, 
therefore,  not  noticing  the  hook  portion  as  it  ap- 
proaches them. 

Miscellaneous  equipment  such  as  hoppers,  feed 
troughs  or  pans,  clover  cutters,  bone  cutters,  spray 
pump,  legbands,  or  other  articles  may  be  installed  as 
necessity  demands. 

Miscellaneous  Buildings  and  Their  Equipnic)it—lt  is 
hardly  within  the  province  of  a  work  of  a  general  na- 
ture to  take  up  the  scientific  construction  of  certain 
buildings.     A  brief  mention   will  suffice. 

A  hospital  is  a  building  apart  from  the  main  plant 
into  which  all  fowls  being  added  or  returned  to  the 
plant  are  brought  for  quarantine,  and  all  fowls  showing 
symptoms  of  disease  arc  brought  for  treatment.  It 
should  be  equipped  as  is  any  poultry  house  with  the 
addition  of  a   medicine   cupboard   and   operating  table. 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  185 

The  medicines  are  kept  at  the  hospital  temporarily, 
during  a  specific  treatment. 

An  office  building  should  be  convenient  to  the  pub- 
lic and  also  to  the  plant.  It  should  be  supplied  with  chairs, 
a  desk,  a  table,  filing  cases  and  a  typewriter. 

A  feed  house  or  granary  building,  when  separate, 
should  be  specially  strong  of  floor  timbers,  be  lined  at 
all  corners  with  tin  to  make  it  mice-proof,  provided 
with  bins,  measures,  scales,  mixers,  cookers,  buckets, 
shovels,  and  containers.  Where  two  stories  are  util- 
ized, there  should  be  shutes  for  ease  of  handling  the 
grain.  A    shop    should    have    the    ordinary    carpen- 

ter's tools,  benches  and  a  small  smithy.  A  small  in- 
vestment judiciously  placed,  will  save  much  to  the  av- 
erage  farm  or  poultry  plant. 

A  helper's  house  needs  to  be  warm  and  comfortable 
and  each  bedroom  supplied  with  a  bed,  chairs,  washstand, 
clothespress  and  table. 

Breeding  pens  and  sitting  houses  are  but  variations 
of  general  purpose  houses,  being  arranged  for  the  con- 
venience of  the  attendant  in  either  case. 

Cold  storage  plants  are  usually  located  in  large  cities 
or -in  some  center  where  produce  is  plentiful.  Their 
central  principle  is  the  circulation  of  pure  air  above, 
at  or  just  below  the  freezing  point.  The  cold  storage 
industry  is  one  of  immense  proportions. 

Packing  plants  have  departments  devoted  to  crate- 
feeding,  killing,  dressing,  cooling,  packing,  shipping 
and  by-products.  They  are  also  assuming,  in  recent 
yfears,   large  proportions. 

Yards,  Parks  or  Ranges. 

The  ideal  life  for  a  fowl  while  developing  and  when 
mature,  is  to  enjoy  unlimited  range,  except  such  tem- 
porary  confinement   as    is   best    under   certain   weather 


186        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

conditions.  Where  the  object  and  the  location  allow, 
plan  a  range.  Where  questions  of  economy  or  nearness 
to  other  property  or  limited  room  enters  into  the  con- 
siderations, then  the  next  choice  will  be  ample  yard  or 
park  room.  Yarding  restricts  liberty  and  increases  ex- 
pense of  food  and  attention. 

Ske,  Shape  and  Location — The  size  of  each  yard,  for 
mature  stock,  is  a  matter  of  what  room  is  available 
and  what  expense  for  fencing  one  wishes  to  assume. 
It  is  well  to  keep  in  mind  that  plenty  of  room  cuts 
down  an  expense  for  green  food  as  well  as  reduces  the 
attention  needed.  The  greater  confinement  requires 
the  greater  care  of  details.  Therefore  more  yard  room 
may  be  real  economy.  Each  fowl  ought  to  have  at 
least  one  hundred  square  feet  of  }'ard  room  and  more 
is  desirable.  True  it  is  that  excellent  results  have  been 
secured  in  very  small  yards  where  care  has  been  given. 
Again  the  more  active  the  breed  the  more  discontented 
they  become  in  a  small  yard  and  the  greater  effort  is 
needed  to  keep  them  busy  and  contented.  In  every 
branch  of  the  industry  overcrowding  is  advised  against 
and  its  application  here  is  essential  for  the  best  results. 

For  younger  stock  it  is  often  advisable  to  allow  them 
less  room.  Sudden  storms,  rainy  days  and  damp  morn- 
ings are  detrimental  to  brooder  stock. 

Breeding  yards  are  also  smaller,  inasmuch  as  but 
a  few  fowls  are  kept  in  each  enclosure. 

The  shape  of  yards  will  vary.  The  square  area  re- 
quires the  least  fencing  but  would  throw  buildings  far- 
ther apart  and  thereby  be  less  economy  of  time.  Where 
area  yet  compactness  is  desired,  long  narrow  runs  are 
used. 

The  location  of  the  yards  will  have  been  settled  when 
the  building  site  is  chosen  since  they  must  be  adjacent. 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards 


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Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


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Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  189 

The  way  the  yard  Hes  relative  to  the  building  will  be 
largely  a  matter  of  economy  and  how  the  various  build- 
ings are  arranged.  Where  it  is  possible  the  yards  should 
be  so  placed  that  they  are  upon  the  side  of  the  build- 
ing which  is  protected  from  the  prevailing  winds. 
Some  have  a  double  yarding,  one  to  the  north  for  sum- 
mer and  one  to  the  south  for  winter.  They  should 
also  be  so  arranged  that  the  attendant  will  not  need 
to  pass  through  the  yards  to  enter  the  buildings  or 
their  sub-divisions. 

The  plan  followed  by  many  is  to  adopt  the  double 
yarding  _  system,  which  enables  one  yard  to  receive  a 
rest  as  well  as  to  furnish  greed  feed.  A  third  yard  is 
often  used  in  a  similar  manner. 

In  the  first  illustration  an  attendant  must  travel 
2,630  feet  each  trip.  In  this  plan  double  yarding  is 
possible  by  fencing  on  the  heavy  dotted  lines. 

In  the  second  illustration  an  attendant  \valks  but 
600  feet  and  entirely  under  shelter  unless  he  prefers 
to  pass  back  through  the  yards. 

Soil  and  Drainage — All  that  was  stated  under  the  sim- 
ilar sub-head  under  "Choosing  a  Location  "  applies  at 
this  time  in  so  far  as  it  is  local  in  nature.  If  needed,  a 
tile  sub-drainage  may  be  employed  to  keep  the  surface 
in  better  condition.  In  case  of  larger  yards,  where 
plowing  may  be  resorted  to,  filth  may  be  kept  down. 
In  smaller  yards  a  top  dressing  of  sand  is  employed 
with  pockets  of  sand  reaching  to  the  tile  through  which 
the  top  filth  is  washed  into  the  drainage  system. 

Shade — Shade  during  the  heat  of  summer  is  essen- 
tial to  health.  It  is  better  to  avoid  such  trees  or  shrubs 
as  hold  their  foliage  throughout  the  winter  months  and 
thus,  cut  off  sunlight  and  warmth.     If  no  other  shade  is 


190        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

available  a  few  boards  or  other  material  may  be  arranged 
to  afford  needed  relief. 

The  best  shade  is  afforded  by  fruit  trees,  which  also 
furnish  som€  income.  Plum  trees  seem  to  be  the 
favorite  because  of  their  quick  growth  and  hardy  na- 
ture. Some  one  variety  of  plum  will  do  well  in  any  cli- 
mate. Berries,  grapes,  cherries  and  apples  do  well. 
It  is  always  better  to  choose  a  tree,  bush  or  vine  native 
to  the  section  in  which  one  lives,  keeping  in  mind  its 
commercial  value  to  assist  the  ledger  accounts.  Where 
more  than  one  yard  is  emplo}-ed  and  shade  is  absent, 
one  yard  may  be  sowed  to  some  plant  of  rapid  growth, 
such  as  sunflowers  or  corn,  which  also  give  some  food 
value  in  return.  Asparagus  beds  are  often  used  for 
this  purpose. 

Care — The  yards  should  be  kept  clean  and  sanitary. 
Do  not  allow  filth  to  accumulate  upon  the  surface  to 
breed  disease.  If  the  runs  are  not  grassy  they  may  be 
stirred  with  a  plow  or  spade.  Where  alternate  yard- 
ing is  employed  a  crop  will  take  up  all  filth  and  make 
the  ground  sweet  and  clean.  About  the  doorway  of  the 
poultry  houses  a  few  shovelfuls  of  sand  or  gravel  will 
prove  beneficial.  In  case  of  very  small  enclosures  a 
little  disinfectant  is  always  desirable. 
Fences. 

Situation — The  situation  of  the  fences  depends  en- 
tirely upon  the  arrangement  of  the  yards,  as  it  is  clearly 
evident  that  the  fencing  must  be  the  yard  limits.  How- 
ever, a  great  saving  may  be  obtained  by  an  arrange- 
ment which  utilizes  the  fencing  of  one  yard  to  sur- 
round a  portion  of  the  other  yard  or  yards.  The  gates 
or  other  openings  must  also  be  placed  conveniently  to 
insure  economy  of  time  and  the  least  annoyance  to  the 
attendants. 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  191 

Materials  and  Their  Cost — The  chief  materials  used 
in  various  parts  of  the  world  vary  entirely  with  the 
local  product  available  and  the  relative  cost  of  ma- 
terials shipped  into  the  locality.  Stone,  wood,  metals 
and  natural  hedges,  or  some  combination  of  these,  are 
the  chief  factors.  Aim  to  build  a  satisfactory  fence 
at  the  lowest  cost.  It  is  not  the  first  cost  that  should 
govern.  A  small,  poorly  galvanized  wire  upon  small 
posts  will  not  last  more  than  half  as  long  as  stronger 
and  better  wire  upon  larger  posts.  The  cost  of  the 
larger  wire  and  better  posts  will  not  double,  and  the 
cost  of  construction  will  be  the  same  in  either  case. 
Therefore  the  better  fence  is  the  more  economical. 

The  cost  of  a  suitable  fence  will  vary  widely  in  dif- 
ferent localities.  The  labor,  kind  of  material  avail- 
able, climate  and  the  purpose  will  all  govern  the  original 
cost.  No  one  of  these  factors  will  be  the  same  in  every 
country  or  locality.  Again,  it  cannot  be  too  deeply  im- 
pressed that  a  cheap  first  cost  is  often  an  expensive  fence. 
Build  well  regardless  of  the  first  cost  if  thereby  ultimate 
economy  is  gained.  From  the  above  consideration  it 
will  be  evident  that  specific  costs  cannot  be  given  that 
will  apply  generally.  Certain  it  is  that  any  fence  well 
made  and  entirely  suitable  will  be  difficult  to  obtain 
at  a  price  usually  found  in  the  average  estimates  given. 
Study  the  materials,  the  construction  and  make  the 
most  of  the  local  situation,  thus  reducing  the  cost  to  a 
minimum. 

Height  of  Fences — For  the  heavier  breeds  of  chick- 
ens, for  ducks  and  any  fowls  not  given  to  much  flight, 
a  three-  or  four-foot  fence  will  suffice.  The  medium 
weight  fowls  are  better  confined  by  a  five-foot  fence. 
The  lighter  fowls  are  usually  kept  within  a  six-foot 
fence,  yet  it  often  happens  that  no  fence  will  stop  cer- 


192        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

tain  varieties  unless  the  runs  are  covered.  There  are 
other  factors  to  consider  than  the  mere  abihty  of  any 
fowl  to  fly.  A  contented  fowl  where  plenty  of  range 
is  available  will  not  bother  an  ordinary  fence,  while 
a  fowl  closely  confined  and  but  poorly  cared  for  will 
seek  freedom  and  food.  Again,  a  fowl  will  go  over 
a  difficult  enclosure  in  an  effort  to  return  to  its  roost- 
ing place.  ]\Iany  use  wing  clasps,  while  others  clip  the 
flight  feathers  to  prevent  flying.  Either  way  is  detri- 
mental to  fowls  wished  for  exhibition  purposes  although 
the  latter  is  less  annoying  to  the  bird.  To  keep  males 
within  bounds  some  special  method  is  often  advisable 
during  the  breeding  season.  Many  cover  small  runs 
with  netting.  Pigeon  yards  are  usually  covered  in  this 
manner. 

Construction — After  determining  the  kind  of  fence 
and  where  it  should  be  erected,  the  setting  of  the  posts 
is  the  next  consideration.  The  posts  may  be  made  of 
wood  such  as  oak,  cedar,  locust,  chestnut  or  any  other 
wood  which  will  prove  durable.  Where  cedar  is  ob- 
tainable it  gives  the  best  satisfaction  although  some 
woods  native  to  the  locality  are  excellent.  In  choosing 
posts  give  a  thought  to  the  length  of  time  they  will 
last,  size  being  considered  as  well  as  the  kind  of  wood. 
To  make  them  last  longer  apply  to  the  portion  to  be 
buried  a  coating  of  hot  tar  and  copperas,  and  char 
them  or  soak  them  in  hot  oil.  Posts  of  iron  are  often 
used,  as  well  as  of  concrete.  The  iron  posts  are  treated 
with  tar  or  waterproof  paint. 

The  distance  apart  that  posts  should  be  placed  varies 
with  the  kind  of  a  fence,  its  height,  and  what  it  must 
turn.  If  intended  for  poultry  only  then  the  posts  may 
be  farther  apart.  The  appearance  should  also  be  con- 
sidered.    Sagging   fences  are  not  a  very  good   adver- 


Poultry  Houses  and  Yards  193 

tisement  for  aii}'  poultr}'  establishment.  From  ten  to 
sixteen  feet  apart  will  handle  all  fences.  An  outside 
limit  of  fourteen  feet  is  adhered  to  by  many. 

In  placing  the  posts  do  not  fail  to  allow  for  both 
large  and  small  gates.  The  small  gates  should  be  at 
least  four  feet  wide  while  the  larger  ones  will  be  ample 
if  fourteen  feet  are  allowed. 

All  posts  should  be  at  least  three  feet  in  the  ground 
with  the  end  and  anchor  posts  four  feet.  The  corner 
and  end  posts  should  be  larger  and  longer  than  the  oth- 
ers to  allow  for  the  better  setting.  Either  fix  firmly 
the  end  and  corner  posts  by  crossbars  nailed  firmly 
upon  the  bottom,  or  much  better  and  more  substan- 
tial would  be  a  foot  or  two  of  cement  grout  well  tamped 
about  the  post  and  allowed  to  set  before  the  balance  of 
the  hole  is  filled.  Do  not  stretch  the  fence  until  the 
cement  is  hardened  well.  Alany  other  methods  of  an- 
choring posts  are  in  vogue,  any  of  which  are  good  if 
well  done.  Do  not  fail  to  brace  well  from  the  end 
or  corner  posts  to  the  brace  posts.  Four  by  four  inch 
timbers  are  the  best  for  this  purpose,  although  to  keep 
the  poultry  from  walking  up  these  posts  a  V-shaped 
tin  or  galvanized  iron  is  inverted  and  attached  to  the 
brace  lengthwise.  Some  use  a  series  of  tin  obstructions 
which  stand  up  several  inches  from  the  brace  and  bar 
the  further  progress  of  the  fowl. 

Watch  that  the  ground  grade  from  post  to  post  and 
along  the  whole  line  is  correct.  If  this  is  not  attended 
to  it  will  be  but  a  short  time  until  the  poultry'  will  be 
finding  or  making  openings  under  the  fence. 

The  baseboards,  the  crosspieces  or  other  means  of 
attaching  the  fencing  proper  must  now  be  built.  Base- 
boards are  used  to  keep  the  males  from  quarreling  and 
the    young    stock    confined,    although    in    places    where 


194        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

the  cost  of  lumber  is  high,  some  use  two-foot  one  inch 
mesh  netting  stretched  upon  the  opposite  side  of  the 
posts  from  the  main  fencing.  Baseboards  should  be 
two  feet  high  to  serve  their  purpose  well. 

The  body  of  the  fence  may  be  entirely  of  boards,  of 
wire,  latticed  with  wood  or  made  of  pickets  and  wire. 
Some  even  build  solid  stone  walls  where  stone  is  very 
plentiful.  Where  wire  fencing  is  used,  it  is  well  to  buy 
heavy  fencing,  which  will  turn  both  stock  and  poultry. 
It  is  but  little  more  expensive  and  much  more  durable, 
as  well  as  less  trouble  to  stretch.  If  netting  is  used 
it  needs  a  top-board  as  well  as  a  base  board  to  keep  it  in 
form.  With  any  fencing,  where  wire  is  concerned,  use 
a  good  stretcher  and  galvanized  staples,  thereby  saving 
the  wire  at  the  point  of  contact  from  rusting  apart. 

With  any  fence  follow  the  instructions  of  the  maker. 
If  one  does  not  understand  fence-building  very  well, 
it  is  better  to  secure  the  services  of  a  builder  for  a  time. 

Gates — The  main  idea  to  observe  in  gate-making  is 
that  they  be  made  substantial  and  well  braced.  Each 
gate  should  have  heavy  hinges,  a  hook  or  latch  and 
springs  to  keep  it  closed,  which  avoids  much  labor.  It 
is  assumed  that  they  are  arranged  conveniently  for  all 
purposes  when  the  yards  are  laid  out.  Gates  of  iron 
frames  with  wire  coverings  may  be  purchased,  or  a 
wooden  frame  covered  with  wire  fencing  is  easily  made. 


Chapter  XIII. 
CONDITIONING  AND   EXHIBITING   POULTRY. 

To  ignore  the  financial  gain  derived  from  attend- 
ing the  poultry  exhibitions  with  a  string  of  birds  still 
leaves  one  enough  incentive  to  satisfy  even  the  most  ex- 
acting. The  raising  of  pure  blood  stock  and  the  subse- 
quent fitting  or  conditioning  necessary  to  place  them  in 
competition  with  others  of  their  class  alone  affords  fas- 
cination enough  for  this  popular  pastime.  To  become  an 
expert  fancier  in  the  showroom  is  the  product  of  a  patient 
thoroughness  combined  with  hard  study.  What  is  to  the 
beginner  a  discouraging  task  becomes  to  the  fancier 
hours  of  enjoyment  among  selected  pets.  Spare  time 
to  read  the  books,  journals,  reports  and  other  poultry 
literature,  to  attend  the  shows  and  to  associate  with 
poultry  organizations.  This  education  is  the  necessary 
foundation  for  future  pleasure.  The  next  step  is  to 
possess  the  very  best  stock  correctly  mated  with  sub- 
sequent care,  feed  and  management  to  produce  eggs 
that  will  hatch  strong  chicks  capable  of  thrifty  growth. 
It  is  not  material  whether  these  chicks  were  raised  by 
natural  or  artificial  means  so  long  as  they  are  well  raised 
by  either  method.  The  final  step  is  the  proper  selection 
and  handling  until  the  blue  ribbon  is  evidence  of  ul- 
timate success. 

Value  of  Exhibiting — This  is  considered  purely  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  exhibitor  and  falls  naturally  into 
four  advantages. 

195 


196        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

1.  Better  breeding  results  because  of  realizing  that  com- 
parison  with  others  will  follow. 

2.  Education  results  from  seeing  other  birds  and  having 
defects  exposed  by  competent  judges. 

3.  Personal  contact  with  poultry  lovers,  having  an  exhibit 
and  winning  prizes  all  contribute  to  sales  and  financial  gain. 

4.  Every  exhibit  tends  to  create  new  recruits  to  the  pleas- 
ant and  lucrative  pursuit  of  poultry  raising. 

Growing  Winners — In  raising  birds  that  will  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  showroom  one  must  begin  with  the 
parent  stock  and  follow  the  offspring  to  maturity,  sur- 
rounding it  with  every  intelligent  care  needed  to  pro- 
duce a  winner.  In  other  chapters  will  be  found  the  prin- 
ciples of  breeding,  incubation,  brooding,  foods  and 
feeding  and  care  of  poultry  in  general,  which  must  be 
studied  and  practiced.  A  vigorous  tgg  germ  with  high 
latent  possibilities  developed  by  an  even,  steady,  con- 
tinuous growth  is  the  object  sought.  A  forced  and  un- 
natural growth  can  never  result  in  the  best  product. 
Especial  care  should  be  given  to  incubate  early  if  early 
shows  are  to  be  attended.  For  the  late  winter  shows 
a  later  development  is  fully  as  well.  For  winter  shows 
late  molting  often  gives  better  plumage.  Examine  often 
for  vermin  among  poultry,  as  no  other  one  cause  can  so 
retard  normal  development.  The  best  fanciers  also 
begin  an  early  study  of  their  birds  with  a  view 
of  culling  out  such  defects  as  wry  tail,  crooked  toes, 
curved  beaks,  uneven  hips,  defective  combs  and  many 
other  deficiencies.  This  gives  the  good  birds  a  better 
chance  for  development.  Culling  for  color  of  plumage 
is  quite  difficult  and  the  novice  had  better  allow  full 
plumage  to  grow  before  he  discards  for  color.  Many  in- 
juries occurring  to  the  pin  feathers,  lack  of  balanced 
rations,  and  many  other  reasons  conspire  to  cause  white 
and  other  colored  feathers.     Alany  specimens  in  certain 


Conditioning  and  Exhibiting  197 

varieties  completely  change  their  plumage  when  devel- 
oped. Comb  and  wattles  are  also  difficult  to  judge  too  early. 
The  early  separation  of  the  sexes  adds  to  the  more  even 
and  vigorous  development  of  both  since  the  males  while 
very  young  are  often  stronger  and  tend  to  deprive  others 
of  the  brood  from  their  due  proportion  of  food  and  care. 
Finally  place  a  mark  or  band  upon  each  bird  so  that  indi- 
vidual study  may  be  better  carried  on. 

JVhen  to  Exhibit  and  Number  of  Entries — Many  weeks 
before  their  dates  one  should  decide  as  to  which  shows 
he  wishes  to  attend  and  how  many  entries  ought  to  be 
made.  Who  will  judge  the  birds  of  the  class  wherein 
entries  are  to  be  made  is  a  very  important  factor.  All 
judges  have  tendencies  to  make  more  severe  cuts  in 
certain  sections  than  in  others.  How  important  it  is 
then  that  these  facts  be  known  when  we  select  our  en- 
tries. Why  enter  a  bird  under  one  judge  when  one  has 
another  bird  which  is  certain  to  be  more  in  keeping 
with  the  ideas  of  the  judge  in  question?  Each  fancier 
or  judge  has  just  a  little  different  way  of  applying  the 
standard  and  it  is  only  justice  to  one's  birds  to  con- 
sider this  when  entering  stock. 

How  many  entries  to  make  is  purely  a  matter  of 
opinion.  Many  prefer  to  enter  only  such  birds  as  is 
believed  will  win,  and  if  they  cannot  choose  to  their  own 
satisfaction  will  often  enter  more  than  one  bird  for  the 
same  purpose.  These  fanciers  aim  to  sell  t^g?  and 
stock  upon  the  showing  made  by  the  limited  string,  thus 
saving  the  expense  of  more  entries.  Some  believe  that 
enough  added  prestige  and  sales  result  from  showing 
a  long  string  to  more  than  pay  the  added  cost  to  enter 
them. 

Selection  of  Prospective  Entries — All  that  has  been 
written  upon  the  subject  of  poultry  judging  is  applicable 


198        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

here  in  the  selection  of  one's  best  birds  for  show  pur- 
poses. Upon  the  proper  scoring  of  the  birds  picked  out, 
keeping  in  mind  the  latent  possibilities  of  each,  rests 
the  ultimate  success  or  faihire  in  the  show  room.  The 
making  of  a  true  fancier  is  a  process  of  slow  yet  steady 
self-education,  firstly  among  his  own  birds  and  secondly 
on  the  exhibition  floor. 

Begin  at  least  eight  or  ten  weeks  prior  to  the  date  of 
showing  to  choose  prospective  entries.  This  allows  suf- 
ficient time  to  grow  new  feathers  to  replace  those  plucked 
and  to  correct  any  other  physical  defects  which  are 
remedial. 

The  number  of  birds  chosen  will  depend  upon  avail- 
able stock  and  if  this  has  no  limitation  then  it  becomes 
a  question  of  the  size  of  the  string.  If  a  believer  in  a 
large  number  of  entries,  choice  must  be  governed  there- 
by and  enough  more  added  to  allow  of  a  second  choice 
at  the  termination  of  the  fitting  period. 

From  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  standard  of  the  va- 
rieties to  be  exibited  exclude  specimens  having  a 
disqualification.  Of  the  others  choose  those  of  the  best 
shape,  plumage,  and  head,  looking  well  to  other  minor 
sections.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  work  to  take 
each  variety  with  its  shifting  standard,  thus  making  it 
a  valueless  guide,  but  the  endeavor  will  be  to  present 
principles  that  are  common  to  every  variety,  leaving  for 
the  standard  of  each  to  teach  specific  details  not  common 
to  all.  Look  well  to  every  marking  in  this  work  of 
selection  and  if  choice  must  be  made  a  glaring  defect 
should  be  discarded  for  a  bird  having  several  minor 
defects.  Weigh  each  bird  picked  out  as  some  may  be  too 
light  to  gain  a  standard  weight  by  exhibition  time. 
Any  ofif-colored  feathers  in  any  bird  examined  should 
be  plucked  out  to  allow  new  feathers  to  grow.    In  nearly 


Conditioning  and  Exhibiting  199 

all  cases  such  defects  have  been  the  result  of  injury  or 
mal-nutrition  and  will  not   reappear. 

Conditioning  Quarters — A  proper  place  in  which  to 
condition  the  fowls  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the 
season  and  temperature  as  well  as  upon  the  breed  of 
fowls.  We  will  assume  the  place  chosen  is  capable  of 
being  regulated  to  meet  desired  needs.  Not  enough 
caution  can  be  given  in  respect  to  careful  conditioning 
of  fowls  intended  for  exhibition  as  this  is  where  nearly 
all  western  breeders  are  outclassed  by  eastern  breeders. 
Many  a  prize  has  been  lost  to  an  inferior  bird  whose  con- 
dition gave  it  a  point  or  less  advantage.  If  the  selec- 
tion of  the  possible  entries  has  taken  place  eight  weeks 
prior  to  the  entry  the  quarters  for  the  first  month  or 
six  weeks  should  be  in  a  dry,  roomy  place  upon  the 
floor  of  which  is  spread  several  inches  of  dry,  clean,  short 
litter.  The  temperature  should  be  as  cool  and  com- 
fortable as  possible  in  warm  weather  or  climates  and 
as  warm  in  cold  or  damp  weather  as  will  secure  the 
comb  and  wattles  against  becoming  frost  bitten.  Upon 
the  walls,  some  three  feet  high,  should  be  placed  train- 
ing coops  for  proper  handling.  All  the  roosts  in  these 
pens  should  be  low  and  at  least  fifteen  inches  from  any 
wall,  thus  saving  wing  and  tail  feathers  from  injury. 
The  ventilation  should  give  volumes  of  fresh  air  without 
draughts  and  all  dust  in  the  air  should  be  guarded 
against.  A  drying  or  fluffing  room  will  be  discussed 
under  "  \\'ashing  and  Cleaning."  Dark  rooms,  warm 
rooms  and  other  special  features  are  a  part  of  the  cor- 
rection of  defects  found  therein. 

The  runs  of  all  pens  should  be  so  arranged  that  the 
birds  may  be  kept  within  certain  bounds  or  within  the 
pens  at  pleasure  because  of  adverse  weather  conditions. 
Shade  in  plenty  is  desirable.     Too  much  sun  in  certain 


200        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

pluma.c^c  is  not  desirable.  For  the  smooth-legged  fowl 
a  grassy  run  in  early  fall  is  desirable  while  such  would  be 
disastrous  to  the  feathered  kind.  Have  pens  enough  so 
that  males  and  females  are  entirely  separate  to  allow  the 
cushion  part  of  the  hen's  plumage  to  become  uniform. 
Cooler  or  darker  pens  are  sometimes  desirable  to  stop 
the  female  from  laying  or  hold  her  in  check  until  show 
time.  A  female  is  always  in  the  prime  of  condition 
just  as  she  begins  to  lay  her  clutch  of  eggs.  It  is  also 
well  to  have  some  arrangement  in  the  pens  so  that  the 
fowls  are  easily  caught  without  injury  until  they  are 
accustomed  to  being  handled.  Many  place  them  at  once 
in  the  training  coops  for  a  few  days  so  that  they  will 
more  easily  handle  when  out.  The  training  coops  should 
be  made  as  nearly  like  those  used  in  the  exhibitions 
as  is  possible.  For  the  last  four  weeks  or  less  the  birds 
will  remain  in  these  same  quarters  or  be  removed  to 
others  if  correcting  defects  or  severe  weather  should  war- 
rant.   Never  leave  quarrelsome  birds  in  pens  wath  others. 

Feeding — In  feeding  poultry  for  exhibition  special  care 
is  necessary  and  yet  precaution  must  be  exercised  that 
they  are  not  coddled.  A  female  too  fat  is  not  her  best 
in  shape  nor  for  subsequent  breeding  while  a  male  car- 
rying good  flesh  is  usually  at  his  best.  Both  sexes  should 
be  plump,  although  it  is  better  to  get  a  cut  for  under 
weight  than  for  over  weight.  Weigh  several  times  and 
feed  accordingly. 

One  must  not  assume  that  one  method  of  feeding  will 
do  for  all  varieties  and  colors.  It  most  decidedly  makes 
a  difference  for  the  worse  in  white  plumaged  birds  if 
they  are  fed  yellow  corn  while  buff  and  some  other  va- 
rieties are  benfited  in  plumage  by  it.  This  is  a  hotly 
contested  point  with  many  and  the  only  way  for  one  to 
satisfy   himself   is   to   test   it.      Fresh   water,   grit,   shell, 


Conditioning  and  Exhibiting  201 

granulated  charcoal  and  some  kind  of  green  food,  hop- 
per fed,  is  desirable  under  all  conditions. 

If  the  birds  are  below  weight  they  can  be  brought  up 
by  feeding  mashes  of  wheat,  corn  and  oats  into  which 
is  plenty  of  fresh  meat  scraps  or  other  protein  food. 
Some  use  sweet  milk  to  stir  the  mash,  thus  supplying 
the  meat  element.  Care  must  be  used  in  wet  mash  feed- 
ing or  one  will  easily  throw  the  fowls  out  of  condition. 
Plent}'  of  dry  grain  should  also  be  fed  in  the  litter  to 
induce  scratching.  When  up  to  weight  feed  a  balanced 
ration  with  plenty  of  exercise. 

For  regular  feeding  use  a  dry  mash  of  wheat,  corn  and 
oats  of  equal  parts  ground  together  and  to  this  add  a 
little  meat  scraps,  ground  bone  or  meat  meal.  Use  this 
mash  once  a  day  and  use  white  or  yellow  corn  as  the 
plumage  of  the  birds  requires.  This  mash  may  also  be 
alternated  with  a  mash  of  ground  oats  and  buckwheat 
in  equal  proportions  to  which  meat  is  added  sparingly. 
The  latter  mash  is  especially  good  for  birds  of  white 
plumage.  It  is  preferable  to  give  this  mash  at  night 
although  some  hopper  feed  it.  If  the  weather  is  cool 
or  cold  always  scatter  some  whole  wheat  in  the  litter 
early  enough  at  night  so  that  each  fowl  may  eat  what 
it  desires  before  going  to  roost.  At  noon  scatter  some 
cracked  corn  or  some  wheat  in  the  litter.  Using  corn 
and  wheat  on  alternate  noons  will  please  the  fowls 
and  once  in  a  while  add  a  handful  or  two  of  sunflower 
seed  to  several  fowls.  In  the  morning  a  feed  of  oats 
and  wheat  is  good  and  if  the  weather  is  cold  add  some 
cracked  corn.  A  little  German  millet  in  the  litter  fur- 
nishes inexpensive  exercise  and  a  choice  morsel  to  eat. 

As  to  the  amount  to  feed  one  should  be  governed 
by  the  variety  of  fowl,  the  climate,  the  season,  the  weight 
of  the  birds,  their  vigor  and  many  other  considerations. 


202 


Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


WHITE  PLYMOUTH  ROCK. 
Courtesy  of  U.  R.  FisheL 


Conditioning  and  Exhibiting  203 

Keep  them  hungry  yet  satisfied.  Allow  them  to  go  to  the 
roosts  with  full  crops  and  aim  to  make  them  comfort- 
able and  happy.  One  may  have  to  look  more  closely  to 
the  males  than  the  females,  the  latter  being  more  apt  to 
express  their  desires.  Keep  whole  grain  before  both 
sexes  as  ian  all  mash  ration  is  not  desirable.  In  the 
mashes  do  not  fail  to  note  the  condition  as  the  meat  may 
be  lessened  if  too  much  flesh  is  forming.  Again  if  the 
plumage  is  backward  or  dull  crowd  it  along  by  a  mash 
of  linseed  meal  or  hemp  seed  to  assist  the  feathering 
and  to  give  them  gloss.  If  one  has  clover  chaff  allow 
the  birds  plenty  of  it.  Many  use  a  little  tincture  of  iron 
in  the  drinking  water  of  colored  breeds  to  give  the 
coloring  richness. 

Before  the  exhibition  prepare  some  food  to  be  used  ex- 
clusively in  the  show  room.  In  case  of  all  birds  and  es- 
pecially the  games,  bantams  and  IMediterraneans  the 
show  room  diet  should  be  made  narrower  and  not  so 
rich  as  the  heat  of  the  show  room  will  cause  rapid  comb 
and  feather  growth  to  the  almost  ruin  of  the  string. 
Especially  lighten  the  rich  mash  before  show  time.  Some 
feed  no  mash  to  the  above  varieties  since  weight  is  less 
important  and  conditioning  easier. 

Correction  of  Defects — How  far  one  can  go  in  cor- 
recting defects  in  a  specimen  being  prepared  for  the 
show  room  is  very  difficult  to  say.  In  part  it  is  a  ques- 
tion of  duty  and  in  part  a  question  of  morals.  The  form- 
er when  by  so  doing  no  harm  results  but  positive  ben- 
efit, the  latter  when  it  is  misleading  to  the  public  and 
when  the  defects  are  transmittable  to  the  progeny,  thus 
buyers  of  eggs  and  stock  being  positively  swindled. 
Where  to  draw  the  line  is  within  the  reach  of  every  per- 
son's conscience  and  will  in  time  be  enforced  by  poul- 
try associations  to  such  extent  as  is  practicable.     Such 


204        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

practice  as  trimming  off  extra  points  on  the  comb,  re- 
fashioning the  wattles  and  coloring  plumage  is  strictly 
fraudulent  and  will  disqualify  the  entry.  The  better 
judges  often  discern  these  things  even  if  they  do  have 
several  men's  work  to  do  each  day. 

The  Comb — If  the  comb  is  developed  as  one  wishes 
it  for  the  show  room  keep  the  fowl  in  cool  quarters. 
If  not  place  the  bird  in  a  warmer  pen  for  a  few  days 
and  feed  liberally  of  meat  and  the  comb  will  develop 
very  rapidly.  Many  comb  defects  are  curable  by  rub- 
bing and  other  manipulation  by  the  thumb  and  finger 
If  the  spike  of  a  rose  comb  should  not  be  straight  with 
the  body  injure  it  with  a  rough  instrument  on  the  op- 
posite side  and  each  day  press  it  into  position  until  healed. 
The  spike  of  a  Wyandotte  type  sometimes  does  not  fol- 
low the  contour  of  the  head  and  by  scratching  it  slightly 
underneath  and  pressing  it  each  day  it  will  soon  train 
down.  In  cases  where  the  other  defects  are  slight  the 
pressing  alone  is  often  all  that  is  required.  A  similar 
method  is  used  to  correct  the  angle  of  the  spike  in  lighter 
varieties  where  it  does  not  tilt  to  the  proper  angle. 

If  a  single  comb  tends  to  lap  to  one  side  while  develop- 
ing or  thereafter  a  scratch  at  the  base  upon  the  opposite 
side  to  the  right  length  will  rectify  the  defect.  Some 
also  use  a  wire  to  hold  them  in  place  or  beyond  place 
while  healing  and  upon  removal  the  comb  is  upright. 
This  wire  must  run  around  the  base  of  the  comb,  then 
upward  and  backward  with  the  free  ends  holding  the 
comb.  Very  light  pieces  of  wood  have  also  been  used, 
one  upon  each  side  of  the  comb,  fastened  at  the  ends. 
In  case  of  small  wart-like  growths  or  uneven  places 
upon  the  comb,  trim  with  a  sharp  knife  and  apply  beef 
tallow  to  heal  it.     For  lack  of  color  in  the  comb  use 


Conditioning  and  Exhibiting  205 

a  little  oil  composed  of  fresh  hen  fat  once  or  twice  and 
thereafter  rubbing  the  comb  daily.  It  will  soon  respond 
readily  and  as  the  color  improves  omit  the  oil,  rubbing 
with  a  soft  flannel  only.  The  oil  tends  to  cause  enlarge- 
ment and  flabbiness  if  used  too  freely.  Sweet  oil  is  quite 
apt  to  do  this.  A^inegar  irritates  the  comb  but  is  used  for 
quick  results.  Keep  pullets  from  laying  if  possible  as 
quite  often  the  combs  grow  out  of  shape  thereafter. 

The  Beak — About  a  week  before  the  show  wash  the 
beak  carefully  with  warm  clear  water  being  care- 
ful to  remove  all  foreign  matter.  Next  rub  it  well  with 
a  little  alcohol  and  sweet  oil  once  only  and  polish  with 
the  chamois  skin.  During  the  succeeding  days  use 
the  chamois  skin  only.  Be  careful  to  keep  the  alcohol 
and  sweet  oil  out  of  the  face.  Do  not  stoop  to  the  per- 
nicious practice  of  using  coloring  matter  or  stain  upon 
the  beak.  Once  detected  one's  reputation  will  equal  his 
character. 

The  Face,  Earlobes  and  Wattles — For  paleness  of  col- 
or treat  the  face  and  wattles,  repeating  the  instructions 
given  for  paleness  of  comb.  To  whiten  earlobes  rub 
into  them  daily  an  oxide  of  zinc  ointment. 

Plumage — Examine  carefully  each  section  for  broken, 
faded,  or  off-colored  feathers.  If  not  in  the  wing  or  tail 
pluck  them  out  if  it  is  desired  to  conform  to  common 
practice.  It  is  assumed  that  at  the  time  of  selection 
this  was  done  and  that  new  feathers  have  grown  in. 
This  second  examination  is  the  one  to  be  final.  In  any 
plucking  do  not  take  out  a  defective  feather  until  its  quill 
is  hard  and  mature,  since  removing  while  green  is  quite 
apt  to  renew  the  evil.  On  young  fowls  do  not  be  dis- 
couraged upon  their  first  feathering  out  as  upon  second 
feathering  the  plumage  may  be  almost  perfect.  The 
tendency  toward  brassiness  in  white  fowls  is  often  over- 


206        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

come  by  placing  in  a  somewhat  dark  place  and  feeding 
the  ration  suggested  under  the  paragraph  on  feeding, 
the  idea  being  that  the  action  of  the  sun  and  of  the  yel- 
low corn  were  in  part  to  blame  for  the  brassy  tendency. 
Other  breeders  laugh  at  this  method  and  prepare  their 
white  birds  by  allowing  them  in  a  run,  claiming  that 
air  is  the  one  essential  to  ripen  up  the  feathers  so  that  the 
creamy  effect  will  disappear.  There  is  truth  in  both 
views.  One  of  the  best  ways  is  to  be  careful  of  the 
rations  and  give  the  birds  a  shady  run.  General  health 
has  much  to  do  with  the  bird's  plumage.  The  male  birds 
should  be  almost  fat  to  make  the  plumage  give  the  best 
symmetry.  Those  fowls  with  feathers  upon  the  legs 
should  not  be  allowed  in  the  wet  grass  or  off  from  a 
clean  sandy  floor  for  a  few  days  prior  to  the  exhibition. 
Females  of  any  class  should  not  be  allowed  to  lay  before 
exhibition  time  as  they  will  do  so  at  the  sacrifice  of  body 
development  and  to  the  detriment  of  their  plumage. 
A  hen  or  pullet  are  usually  at  their  best  in  plumage 
just  before  laying  and  any  means  is  justifiable  to  keep 
her  in  such  condition  until  in  the  exhibition  coop.  If 
the  birds  are  not  in  good  plumage  and  require  hurry- 
ing, feed  them  meat,  linseed  oil,  or  hemp  seed  to  force 
feather  growth. 

Defective  wings  and  tails  are  often  improved  by  hand 
manipulation.  Incisions  to  procure  corrections  of  the 
tail  are  sometimes  resorted  to  by  the  unscrupulous. 

Legs  and  Feet — In  the  early  fall  when  no  feathers 
are  to  be  protected  a  clean  grassy  run  is  always  good 
to  bring  out  color  in  the  legs  and  feet.  Some  remove 
short  feathers  or  stubs  in  time  to  allow  the  places  to 
heal.  This  practice  and  coloring  are  both  unprofessional 
and  will  disqualify  the  entry. 


Conditioning  and  Exhibiting 


207 


WHITE  PLYMOUTH  ROCK. 
Courtesy  of  U.   R.  Fishel. 


208        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Brin(2f  out  color  by  rubbing  in  oil  and  polishing  witb 
a  flannel  cloth. 

U^ashifii:;  and  Clcanui^^ — Cleaning  the  comb.  face, 
beak  and  wattles  is  easily  done  by  warm  water  and  a 
sponge  or  cloth  and  carefully  drying.  To  bring  out 
color  note  the  suggestion  under  correcting  defects.  The 
legs  and  feet  are  cleaned  by  brushing  them  well  with 
a  good  grade  ■oi  soap  and  soft  water.  If  the  dirt  under 
the  scales  resists  the  soft  brush  use  a  toothpick  to  loosen 
it  and  then  brush  well.  An  old  tooth  brush  is  splendid 
for  this  purpose.  Finally  rub  in  alcohol  and  sweet  oil 
or  better  yet  just  a  touch  of  vaseline  well  worked  into 
the  cloth  so  that  there  will  be  none  to  work  under  the 
scales  and  then  polish  well  with  a  flannel  cloth.  Repeat 
the  polishing  several  times  and  after  reaching  the  show 
room.  Never  oil  shanks  to  any  appreciable  extent  be- 
fore shipping  as  it  will  soil  the  plumage  en  route. 

Washing  and  Cleaning  the  Plumage — This  is  the 
only  real  work  there  is  in  connection  with  preparing  the 
fowl  for  the  show.  The  other  parts  are  comparatively 
easy.  On  all  parti-colored  birds  where  richness  and  har- 
mony of  coloring  are  essential  washing  is  distinctly 
harmful  because  it  tends  to  spoil  the  gloss,  and  where 
two  colors  are  to  show  a  sudden  line  of  division  or 
demarkation  the  washing  tends  to  make  tthe  distinction 
somewhat  blurred.  Solid  colored  birds  are  given  richer 
tones  by  other  methods  than  washing.  Others  maintain 
washing  and  good  after  treatment  good  for  any  color 
or  colors.  Where  a  flannel  cloth  or  chamois  skin  are 
used  exclusively  the  rubbing  of  the  plumage  is  always 
in  the  direction  the  feathers  grow.  The  dirt  and  soiled 
spots  will  give  way  in  a  very  short  time  and  be  replaced 
bv   a   rich   gloss   just   as   it   is   accomplished   in   a   well 


Conditioning  and  Exhibiting  209 

groomed  horse.  The  natural  sheen  is  left  and  the  color- 
ing is  difficult  to  imitate  by  any  other  method. 

The  washing  room  should  contain  rain  water,  a  stove 
for  heating  water,  a  means  of  keeping  up  the  temper- 
ature of  the  room,  a  drying  arrangement,  three  tubs, 
a  large  dipper,  a  hand  brush,  a  tooth  brush,  a  sponge, 
several  soft  towels,  a  hi^h  grade  soap  and  a  table. 

The  drying  arrangement  is  the  most  important  of  the 
equipment.  This  may  be  any  device  which  is  open 
below  except  for  a  wire  netting  and  whose  sides  and 
top  have  cloth  curtains.  The  wire  floor  is  to  protect  the 
fowls  from  touching  the  stove  or  other  source  of  heat 
in  case  any  of  the  fowls  attempt  to  fly  downward.  The 
curtains  are  to  regulate  the  heat.  This  device  may  be 
placed  over  a  stove  or  over  oil  stoves  or  even  large 
parlor  lamps  if  one  is  careful  to  place  a  big  sheet  of 
tin  or  other  metal  over  such  stoves  or  lamps  to  spread 
the  heat  when  it  rises  toward  the  fowls.  Lay  the  tin 
in  the  drying  crate  upon  the  wire  bottom,  leaving  room 
on  the  outer  sides  for  the  heat  to  pour  into  the  crate. 
A  broad  roost  runs  lengthwise  of  Miis  crate  which  will 
hold  six  or  eight  fowls. 

Having  been  washed  they  will  not  quarrel  upon  this 
roost  even  if  a  part  are  strange  to  the  others.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  the  tin  does  not  heat  enough  to 
injure  a  bird  if  by  accident  it  should  fall  below  the  roost, 
in  which  case  the  tin  had  better  rest  upon  some  wire 
supports  below  the  wire  floor  of  the  coop.  The  tem- 
perature is  controlled  within  the  crate  by  means  of  the 
curtains.  If  the  birds  are  not  inclined  to  remain  in  the 
dryer  the  front  may  be  made  of  two  sliding  doors 
which  are  covered  with  wire  netting.  The  lifting  of  the 
curtain  then  in  no  way  allows  the  birds  to  escape.  This 
crate    will    be    found    much    more    valuable    than    the 


210        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

radiated  heat  from  an  open  fireplace,  stove  or  furnace. 

With  the  temperature  of  the  room  at  about  90°  Fahren- 
heit and  the  drying  and  fluffing  crate  ready,  take  each 
fowl  and  see  that  its  head,  legs  and  feet  are  cleaned. 
Stand  the  fowl  to  its  knee-joints  in  a  tub  of  quite 
comfortably  w^arm  water.  Lather  the  sponge  well  and 
rub  the  soap  into  every  part  of  the  fowl's  plumage,  be- 
ing careful  to  always  rub  with  the  feathers  and  begin- 
ning upon  the  back.  Open  or  part  the  plumage  upon 
the  different  parts  of  the  body,  making  it  easier  to 
reach  the  under  plumage.  Spread  the  wings  and  tail 
against  the  palm  of  the  hand  while  washing. 

When  satisfied  that  the  plumage  is  clean  place  the 
bird  into  the  second  tub  containing  an  equal  amount  of 
lukewarm  water  or  water  from  which  the  chill  has 
been  taken.  Thoroughly  rinse  all  soap  from  the  plum- 
age after  which  repeat  the  rinsing  in  a  third  tub.  If  the 
plumage  is  white  the  third  water  should  be  slightly  blued. 

Taking  the  fowl  from  the  third  water,  place  it  upon 
a  table  or  a  box  where  it  is  allowed  to  drain  for  a  mom- 
ent. With  the  sponge  wipe  ofif  the  plumage  after  which 
dry  it  carefully  with  the  towels.  Be  careful  not  to  use 
too  much  bluing  and  if  quite  a  tint  is  visible  it  may 
disappear  in  a  few  days.  Xever  rub  plumage  the  op- 
posite way  to  the  direction  of  the  shaft.  The  bird 
is  now  ready  for  the  drying  and  fluffing  crate  upon  the 
wide  perch  of  which  it  is  placed.  The  temperature  is 
controlled  by  the  curtains.  One  person  should  constantly 
attend  to  the  opening  and  loosening  up  of  the  plumage 
of  the  fowls  upon  the  perch  while  others  are  being 
washed,  after  which  entire  attention  is  given  the  birds 
in  the  crate.  Much  manipulation  of  the  loose  feathered 
varieties  is  beneficial  while  just  enough  for  drying  is 
best   for  the  tight-feathered   fowls.     When   the   drying 


Conditioning  and  Exhibiting  211 

process  is  completed  allow  the  room  temperature  to  lower 
until  it  has  reached  the  temperature  of  their  regular 
quarters,  thus  avoiding  possibiHties  of  a  cold  being  con- 
tracted when  the  transfer  is  made.  A  little  whiskey  in 
the  drinking  water  will  assist  to  ward  off  danger  of 
cold. 

Fowls  should  be  washed  for  the  last  time  at  least  four 
days  before  entering  the  show  room.  This  gives  time 
for  the  oil  and  gloss  to  return  by  frequently  rubbing 
the  plumage  with  a  chamois  skin. 

Training — A  number  of  times  each  bird  should  be 
placed  in  a  training  coop.  If  rather  wild  at  first  let 
them  get  quite  hungry.  Then  approach  quietly  but  firm- 
ly and  give  some  choice  morsel  of  which  they  are  fond. 
Repeat  this  and  in  a  short  time  they  will  be  ready  for 
one.  Compel  them  to  eat  out  of  the  hand.  Next  have 
some  of  the  family  join  the  feeding  rounds.  Begin 
handling  them  being  very  careful  not  to  injure  the 
wing  and  tail  feathers.  Never  show  the  least  temper 
with  a  bird,  no  matter  how  severe  it  may  try  the  patience, 
and  soon  it  will  be  as  docile  as  any  of  the  flock.  When 
they  have  become  accustomed  to  being  handled  and 
are  quiet  use  a  stick  about  two  feet  long  and  thus 
when  the  judge  carries  one  there  will  be  no  nervousness 
shown  by  the  exhibit.  One  is  now  ready  for  the  real 
training. 

Symmetry  is  desired  and  therefore  place  the  fowl  in 
position  outside  of  the  coop  by  raising  its  head  with 
the  stick  until  it  learns  to  pose  without  the  stick  upon 
a  mere  approach.  This  enables  a  judge  to  catch  its 
natural  position  easily.  A  tail  carried  too  high  or  too 
low  may  also  be  helped  by  the  use  of  the  stick  in  ad- 
dition to  the  manipulation  previously  mentioned.  In- 
side of  the  coops  teach  the  bird  to  come  to  the  front  of 


212        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

the  coop  and  pose  quickly,  rewarding  it  with  a  dainty  now 
and  then.  These  are  small  points  but  they  have  won 
many  blue  ribbons  where  the  contest  was  close.  Well 
trained  birds  seem  at  home  in  the  show  room  and  ac- 
tually act  as  if  they  were  proud  to  be  compared  with 
their  neighbors. 

Final  Selections — The  birds  that  are  finally  chosen  for 
exhibition  should  be  those  which  at  the  end  of  the  con- 
ditioning and  training  season  most  closely  approach  the 
standard.  The  final  weighings  should  govern  subse- 
quent feeding.  The  number  of  birds  to  each  class  should 
be  governed  by  the  policy  chosen  relative  to  the  size 
of  the  string.  While  the  outward  appearance  is  much 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  health  and  vigor  have  most 
to  do  with  the  bird's  bearing,  sprightliness,  and  symme- 
try. Lastly  take  a  thorough  look  over  every  section  of 
each  proposed  entry,  both  as  to  shape  and  color,  making 
sure  that  everything  has  been  done  to  win  every  avail- 
able point  in  the  final  score. 

Marking  or  Banding — If  the  specimens  chosen  have 
not  already  been  banded  do  so,  using  only  the  best 
sealed  or  riveted  bands  which  will  not  allow  of  changing 
or  stealing  in  the  show  room.  The  rules  of  nearly  all 
the  shows  require  banding  and  many  poultry  fanciers 
so  mark  all  of  their  flock  to  facilitate  records  as  well 
as  recover  lost  property.  It  is  also  handy  to  refer  to 
when  prospective  customers  are  looking  over  your  flock 
as  many  orders  are  placed  in  this  way.  Many  fanciers 
have  a  secret  marking  placed  with  certain  inks  to  serve 
various  aims.  Some  birds  do  not  become  accustomed 
to  the  bands  readily,  so  it  is  necessary  to  band  such  early. 

Shipping — Shipping  Coops  should  be  light  and  dur- 
able. A  hinged  top  with  padlock  arrangements  is  wise, 
'^ach   coop   should  be   distinctly  painted   and   the   name 


Conditioning  and  Exhibiting  213 

and  address  of  the  owner  stenciled  upon  each  end  to 
present  a  more  attractive  appearance  as  well  as  to  afford 
greater  ease  in  finding.  Handles  upon  each  coop  are 
desirable.  The  sizes  vary  but  standard  coops  are  twenty- 
four  inches  deep,  thirty  inches  high  and  twenty-four, 
thirty  and  forty  inches  long  respectively,^  as  they  are 
intended  for  one,  two  or  more  fowls.  Turkey  coops  are 
thirty  inches  deep,  thirty-six  inches  high  and  forty-eight 
inches  long.  If  the  exhibitors  are  to  furnish  their  own 
coops  at  the  show  the  shipping  coop  may  be  a  com- 
bination shipping  and  show  coop  either  made  or  pur- 
chased from  any  poultry  supply  house.  Some  use  dry 
goods  boxes  made  into  suitable  form.  Each  coop  must 
provide  for  ventilation  and  also  for  closing  against 
cold  draughts.  They  should  be  well  cleaned  and  ven- 
tilated each  time  before  using.  Only  clean,  fresh,  dustless 
litter  should  be  used  for  bedding.  Muslin  or  canvas  cur- 
tains, tacked  or  fastened  securely  will  protect  the  fowls 
as  well  as  keep  all  persons  from  bothering  while  en  route. 
Sufficient  air  will  pass  through  the  curtains. 

Now  place  the  fowls  singly  in  their  respective  coops 
according  to  the  mode  of  entry  unless  for  good  reason  of 
economizing  more  than  one  entry  is  desired  in  each  ship- 
ping coop.  In  the  latter  case  the  birds  to  be  shipped 
together  should  be  housed  together  prior  to  shipping. 
One  should  be  on  hand  to  coop  his  own  or  mistakes 
are  very  liable  to  occur.  Fasten  and  lock  each  coop 
and  upon  the  shipping  tag  write  the  sex,  variety  and 
band  number  of  each  fowl  enclosed  as  well  as  the  name 
and  address  of  the  shipper.  One  should  also  designate 
the  express  company  handling  the  shipment.  It  is  bettei 
that  the  shipper  take  the  same  train  to  the  place  of  the 
exhibition  that  carries  his  birds  for  he  can  then  watch 
for   any  neglect   his   coops  may   receive   in   the   express 


214        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

wagon,  upon  the  station  platform  at  either  end,  a 
hot  car  in  transit,  a  delay  in  the  dehvering  trip  to  the 
show  room  or  exposure  at  the  door  of  the  show  room. 
These  are  possibihties  which  quite  often  come  too  true. 

Show  Room  Care — Attend  all  shows  in  person  when 
possible,  thus  being  present  when  assignments  are  made 
and  coops  furnished.  Seek  to  obtain  a  location  where 
the  light  is  favorable,  the  air  fresh  but  free  from  drafts 
and  as  far  from  a  stove  as  is  possible. 

Have  at  hand  a  case  containing  carbolic  acid,  sweet 
oil,  alcohol,  naptha,  vaseline,  brandy,  a  sponge,  towels, 
basins,  soft  brush,  shears,  chamois  skin  and  flannel  cloth. 
With  a  solution  of  one  gallon  of  water  into  which  has 
been  stirred  five  tablespoonfuls  of  carbolic  acid  wash 
out  well  all  exhibition  coops  to  be  used,  thus  avoiding 
possible  contagion  from  former  occupants. 

At  this  time  the  color  effects  should  be  added  if  any 
are  to  be  used.  Cloth  tacked  upon  the  inside  will  answer 
where  one's  own  coops  are  not  used.  All  coops  should 
be  made  to  open  at  the  top,  using  inch  wire  mesh  for 
covering,  in  order  to  get  good  light.  The  sides  and 
back  covered  with  a  pale  blue  and  the  bars  black  show 
off  white  birds  to  good  advantage.  Red  for  fowls  with 
a  reddish  tendency  with  pea  green  front,  black  for  buff 
fowls  with  pea  green  bars,  white  for  black  fowls  and 
blue  for  bluish  tinged  plumage.  Many  believe  that 
the  use  of  color  effects  is  wrong  unless  the  same  varie- 
ty are  all  provided  with  uniform  coops. 

Place  plenty  of  litter  in  the  coop  and  insert  the  fowls. 
Try  to  avoid  all  unnecessary  grooming  and  handling  as 
the  latter  ruffles  the  plumage.  Protect  the  exhibit  from 
the  handling  by  others  who  are  always  prone  to  take  such 
liberties.  Any  plumage  soiled  in  transit  clean  with 
ilanncl  cloth  or  if  necessary  dampen  the  sponge  slightly 


Conditioning  and  Exhibiting  215 

with  naptha  and  go  over  the  spots  lightly.  Rub  the 
legs,  beak,  wattles,  and  earlobes  with  a  damp  flannel 
cloth,  or  some  use  alcohol  and  sweet  oil  while  others 
use  just  a  touch  of  vaseline.  These  little  attentions  are 
important. 

The  feeding  is  best  done  by  one  person,  preferably 
the  owner  or  his  attendant.  The  superintendent  of  the 
show  will  usually  grant  this  request  and  instruct  the 
show  attendant  accordingly.  Each  exhibitor  would 
better  take  his  own  feed  supply  from  home,  consisting 
of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  wheat,  oats  and  cracked 
corn  of  the  right  color  to  which  has  been  added  some 
grit,  shell,  charcoal  and  sunflower  seed.  Feed  in  small, 
deep  basins,  taken  along  for  the  purpose,  putting  but 
little  feed  in  each  dish  and  leaving  them  in  the  coops  only 
long  enough  to  allow  each  bird  to  eat  a  sufficient  amount. 
Water  in  a  similar  way.  This  done  three  times  daily 
will  suffice.  Use  care  that  no  feed  drops  among  the 
shavings  or  sawdust.  Each  morning  bring  the  birds 
a  relish  of  raw  cabbage  and  a  little  lean  hamburg  steak 
to  those  whose  combs  wall  not  be  injured  thereby.  Water 
should  remain  in  the  coops  no  longer  than  to  allow 
the  birds  to  eat  and  drink  a  reasonable  amount.  If 
there  is  a  tendency  for  fowls  to  become  tired  out  or  they 
catch  cold  take  steps  at  once  to  correct  it  by  giving  a 
little  brandy  in  the  water,  and  if  the  cold  is  severe 
give  such  fowls  a  two  grain  pill  of  quinine  night  and 
morning.  Be  sure  at  night  to  leave  the  coop  protected 
from  all  draughts  by  a  cloth  front  and  top  securely  fas- 
tened. 

Attitude  of  the  Exhibitor  iu  the  Show  Room — Many 
a  breeder  has  made  or  lost  a  host  of  friends  and  cus- 
tomers by  his  bearing  in  the  show  room.  It  is  possible 
to   be   uniformly   courteous   to   every   visitor,    interested 


216       Science  axd  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

in  and  helpful  to  every  exhibitor,  and  graceful  in  ac- 
cepting the  decision  of  the  judges.  To  conduct  one's 
self  in  any  other  manner  no  matter  how  discourteous 
others  may  be,  how  underhanded  and  small  certain  ex- 
hibitors may  seem,  or  how  unjust  a  decision  is  ren- 
dered would  be  to  lose  sight  of  one's  own  best  interests. 
If  there  is  to  be  a  protest  made  make  it  firmly  and 
gentlemanly.  If  overruled  accept  it  W'ith  quiet  dignity. 
How  many  times  have  we  seen  an  exhibitor  lose  our  re- 
spect by  his  behavior  when  he  really  had  our  sympathy  at 
the  outset.  Especially  one  should  not  make  his  presence 
obnoxious  while  the  judge  is  working  at  his  exhibit. 
If  you  have  anything  to  say  take  the  judge  to  one  side 
and  lay  your  grievances  before  him  and  aSk  him  to  point 
out  where  the  weakness  lies.  This  will  insure  much  bet- 
ter treatment  than  by  hasty  words  unwisely  timed. 

Advertising  in  the  Shozv  Room — To  just  what  extent 
and  in  what  manner  one  should  advertise  in  the  show 
room  is  difficult  to  define.  Any  method  employed  which 
does  not  savor  of  vulgarity  seems  to  be  justifiable. 
Everyone  will  respect  dignified  business-like  methods 
of  bringing  before  the  public  the  merits  of  the  stock  ex- 
hibited. The  bare  presence  of  the  entries  calls  attention 
to  them  while  a  prize  won  is  the  best  attraction  a  coop 
can  have.  That  these  advantages  may  be  utilized  many 
have  a  small,  neat  business  card  attached  to  the  coop 
and  loose  card  or  other  literature  for  visitors  to  take 
at  their  pleasure.  Others  have  a  large  placard  giving 
more  information  and  by  its  size  and  color  enforcing  at- 
tention. A  placard  upon  every  coop  of  a  long  string 
is  often  the  means  of  calling  more  attention  to  a  breeder. 
Cards  bearing  a  photograph  of  the  bird  or  birds  en- 
tered, with  the  name  and  address  of  the  breeder  neatly 
printed  is  a  strong  method  of  advertising.   Much  can  also 


Conditioning  and  Exhibiting  217 

be  done  by  being  near  the  exhibit  and  supplying  visitors 
with  such  information  as  they  desire,  thus  often  getting 
in  touch  with  prospective  customers.  Use  wisdom  in 
approaching  strangers  who  are  looking  at  the  exhibits, 
as  only  a  few  are  really  interested  to  a  point  of  be- 
ing possible  customers,  although  nearly  all  would  be 
pleased  to  have  the  exhibits  explained  and  shown  to 
them. 

Care  After  the  Exhibition — When  the  show  is  over 
the  owner  or  capable  assistant  should  personally  return 
the  birds  to  their  own  shipping  coops.  To  trust  this  to 
some  one  who  is  not  dependable  is  to  incur  the  risk  of 
colds,  poor  placarding,  careless  handling  by  draymen 
and  their  evil  consequences. 

As  in  going  to  the  show  the  attendant  should  return 
upon  the  same  train  and  note  that  proper  care  be  given 
the  birds  en  route  and  at  their  destination.  So  many 
times  the  long  exposure  upon  an  express  truck  has  cost 
fanciers  their  best  winners. 

Upon  arriving  home  and  there  is  another  exhibition 
to  attend  the  poultry  should  be  replaced  in  the  condition- 
ing rooms.  If  they  are  to  return  to  their  pens  a  quar- 
antfne  of  ten  days  is  essential  unless  one  wishes  to  ex- 
pose the  whole  flock  to  some  contagion  brought  home 
from  the  show.  They  may  be  returned  to  their  old 
rations  at  once,  but  they  should  be  somewhat  accustomed 
to  a  different  temperature  by  degrees  and  not  placed 
in  their  old  quarters  in  too  severe  weather. 


Chapter  XIV. 
POULTRY   JUDGING. 

Defined — Judging  is  the  determining,  point  by  point, 
how  closely  the  fowl  being  judged  compares  with  the 
standard  set  for  an  ideal  bird  of  the  breed  or  variety 
to   which   the    fowl   belongs. 

Importance — The  business  of  judging  poultry  has 
grown  to  be  almost  a  distinct  profession  and  many  of 
the  leading  poultry  judges  are  known  the  world  over 
both  by  reputation  and  having  actually  judged  at  shows 
in  many  different  parts  of  the  world.  Many  schools  are 
making  poultry  judging  a  special  branch  of  their  course 
of  study. 

Qualifications — It  is  easy  to  lay  down  what  quali- 
ties a  man  should  possess  to  become  a  successful 
poultry  judge,  but  when  one  attempts  to  develop  and 
exercise  those  peculiar  faculties,  he  finds  that  the  pub- 
lic is  very  exacting.  One  must  possess  the  judicial  qual- 
ities of  earnestness,  fairness  and  fearlessness.  Having 
these  and  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  true  type  of 
each  variety  and  breed  of  fowls  as  laid  down  by  the 
proper  authorities,  a  judge  ought  to  deliver  decid- 
ed and  impartial  rulings  in  every  case.  To  be  apt 
and  highly  successful  he  should  love  poultry  for  the 
pleasure  to  be  derived  in  their  handling.  His  stock 
of  "  horse-sense  "  should  be  large,  as  in  no  place  is  its 
exercise  more  necessary  than  in  tactfully  handling  poul- 
try breeders  in  a  show  room.  Uniformity  and  fairness 
in  decisions  are  essential  and  will  gain  a  judge  the  con- 
218 


Poultry  Judging  219 

fidence  of  all  exhibitors.  An  aptness  for  symmetry  is 
is  found  in  all  our  leading  judges. 

Preparation  for  Judging — There  is  no  one  royal  road 
to  an  appointment  as  a  poultry  judge.  Some  have  been 
students  of  poultry  in  the  field  of  practical  experience 
for  many  years.  Others  have  reached  the  goal  by  their 
love  of  poultry  raised  and  studied  as  a  sideline,  while 
still  others  have  gone  to  the  various  resident  or  corre- 
spondent schools  and  taken  the  courses  of  study  in  poul- 
try husbandry.  All  have  had  to  study  the  ideal  type 
of  each  variety  as  laid  down  by  the  American  Stand- 
ard of  Perfection  until  it  becomes  to  them  a  second 
nature.  All  have  had  to  keep  informed  of  the  changes 
made  from  year  to  year.  All  have  had  to  begin  judg- 
ing at  local  shows  and  gain  their  proficiency  by  hard 
and  careful  application  of  their  knowledge  until,  step 
by  step,  they  have  climbed  the  ladder  of  success  in  poul- 
try judging.  Many  have  aspired  to  this  mark  and  failed 
to  get  a  certificate  of  appointment  from  the  proper  author- 
ities through  a  lack  of  preparedness  for  the  work.  It  is 
more  than  likely  that  a  series  of  examinations  will  be 
required  by  the  proper  associations  or  committees  in 
the  near  future  and  a  certificate  issued  to  all  success- 
fully reaching  the  required  standard.  A  close  study  of 
the  Standard  of  Perfection  and  its  instructions  to  judges 
is  necessary,  after  which  its  practical  application  to  the 
fowl  by  class,  breed  and  variety,  will  determine  how 
well  fitted  one  is  for  the  task. 

Scoring — The  Standard  of  Perfection  arranges  a  scale 
for  each  variety  admitted  to  the  Standard,  giving  to 
each  part  or  section  of  a  fowl  a  certain  number  of  points, 
and  the  total  points  of  all  sections  amount  in  all  to  one 
hundred.  vSymmetry,  weight  and  condition  are  consid- 
ered  sections   for  all  practical  purposes.      Symmetry  is 


'20 


Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


SOUTHWESTERN    POULTRY    ASSOCIATION. 

Official    Score    Card    of    the    American    Poultry 
Association. 


Dat(^  /njn/ar 


Ownpr       (/WCv^     JiL^ 


Entry    Na 


£A. 


Band    No. 
Weight 


XL  /a 


z. 


Shape 

Color 

Remarks 

Svmmetrv 

A 

Weight    or    size 

ConHitior]  „ 

-f^ 

Fve^ 

CnmVf 

^f 

Wattles  and   ear-lobes_ 

;   A 

Nerk 

-^ 

\-\ 

Wintry 

■¥ 

y.^^ 

Rrirl, 

^y 

4 

AJj:f^^^ 

Tail 

^^ 

4 

Rrpast 

4 

Bodv  and   flnff 

^? 

^C^n^U^  e<^i;<fe  ^ - 

4 

4 

'  IZLI^ 

^^^^ 

*Hardness   of  feather 

**Crcst   aad   beards 

Total  cut^ 

/4 

5^ 

-    Score     ^^;^ 

'Applies    to   Games    and    Game    Bantam-: 
♦•Applies   to  Crested    Breec 


Name  of  indt^P      A^uiLZlt^    ^^^J^  .j 

•^how   secretary         C^/ AD/l^/       Q)  fyy^./^^^^tfU 


Poultry  Judging  221 

hard  to  define  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  It  is  a  har- 
monious agreement  of  one  part  or  section  with  another 
and  with  the  whole,  including  a  carriage  typical  of  the 
breed  which  it  represents.  Symmetry  is  also  fixed  by 
the  American  Poultry  Association  as  shown  in  the 
Standard  of  Perfection.  Weight  and  condition  are 
self-explanatory. 

Scoring  is  of  two  classes — the  score-card  system  and 
the  comparison  system.  In  the  latter  the  same  method 
is  employed  as  in  the  former,  except  the  record  is  men- 
tal, while  in  the  fomier  a  record  card  is  used.  Many 
prefer  the  comparison  system  because  of  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  work  may  be  accomplished.  Thus  only 
the  better  birds  are  handled  and  in  the  hands  of  a  good 
judge  is  very  satisfactory.  Under  the  score  card  sys- 
tem it  is  claimed  the  chief  excellence  lies  in  its  edu- 
cative feature.  It  directly  points  out  the  defects,  sec- 
tion by  section,  as  they  are  present,  which  to  a  begin- 
ner is  extremely  valuable.  Some  claim  better  and  more 
honest  judging  under  this  system,  but  either  system  in 
the  hands  of  honest  judges  should  be  satisfactory. 
The  score  card  shows  each  "  cut  "  or  "  discount  "  sec- 
tion by  section,  and  wdien  complete,  the  sum  total  of 
the  "  cuts  "  taken  from  one  hundred,  represents  the  ac- 
tual score  of  the  bird.  The  "  cuts,"  the  score,  the  date, 
the  leg-band  number,  the  sex,  the  weight,  the  variety, 
and  other  information  are  entered  upon  the  card,  which 
is  then  duly  signed  by  the  judge  and  by  the  secretary  of 
the  association  under  whom  the  show  is  held.  It  then 
usually  becomes  the  property  of  the  owner  of  the  bird. 
Following  is  a  sample  score  card. 
Insert  score  card. 

Determining  Age  of  Fozvis — Few  judges  will  fail  to 
note  the  difference  between  the  pullet  and  the  hen  or  be- 


222       Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

tween  the  cockerel  and  the  cock  in  any  variety  of  any 
breed.  However  by  the  young  aspirant,  this  knowledge 
must  be  gleaned  from  some  source  if  not  already  gained 
by  experience.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  sug- 
gestions herein  given  do  not  apply  with  equal  force  to 
all  varieties.  The  pullet  must  have  a  clean  cut,  smooth 
face,  while  the  hen  will  acquire  wrinkles  with  age  in 
both  face  and  eyelids.  The  skin  is  tender  and  the  veins 
appear  pinkish  in  the  pullet,  while  with  age  the  skin 
becomes  white  and  more  veinless.  The  shanks  and  feet 
of  a  pullet  are  covered  by  a  supple  skin  with  thin  yet 
brilliant  scales,  while  the  skin  and  scales  of  the  hen's 
feet  and  shanks  grow  coarse  and  less  brilliant.  The 
nails  of  the  last  toe  in  a  hen  become  more  worn  than 
those  of  a  pullet,  due  to  scratching.  More  hair  appears 
in  the  plumage  of  the  young  than  in  the  old.  "  The 
plumage  has  a  diflFerent  touch  and  less  flexibility  in  the 
older  birds.  In  some  varieties  and  breeds  the  length 
of  the  flight  feathers  is  an  indication  of  age.  All  that 
has  been  said  thus  far  applies  to  both  the  male  and  the 
female.  In  the  case  of  cocks,  the  spurs  indicate  age, 
while  in  pullets  the  bones  of  the  rear  part,  or  of  the 
pubis  bones,  are  a  fairly  certain  indicator  of  age.  The 
points  or  lower  ends  of  these  bones  lie  just  beneath  the 
vent  and  in  a  pullet  are  close  together.  With  full  ma- 
turity they  begin  to  widen  and  while  laying,  are  the 
width  of  two  or  three  fingers.  This  width  will  vary, 
depending  upon  the  age  of  the  hen  and  her  productive- 


•  Chapte  XV. 
METHODS  OF  PRESERVING  EGGS. 

Many  houses  have  a  surplus  of  eggs  during  the  spring 
and  summer  and  have  to  buy  eggs  at  the  season  of  the 
their  highest  price  and  in  this  way  their  flocks  are  not 
profitable.  To  save  and  preserve  enough  of  these  to  last 
throughout  the  season  of  non-production  would  be  both 
profitable  and  convenient  for  the  busy  wife.  Again  the 
small  stores  throughout  the  country  might  profitably  buy 
eggs  at  a  low  price  in  the  spring  and  easily  preserve  them 
for  the  scarcity  which  is  sure  to  follow.  Or  perhaps  a 
separate  business  is  desirable  which  is  easily  established 
by  the  gathering  and  preserving  of  eggs  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  gain  an  independent  income.  In  short,  the 
methods  of  preserving  eggs  are  so  complete  that  an 
enormous  industry  has  been  built  up  within  recent  years 
along  those  lines.  These  methods  contain  those  which 
are  all  well  adapted  to  the  home,  to  the  store  or  to  the 
immense  packing  houses  of  the  cities. 

The  aim  is  to  stop  or  retard  the  decomposition  of  the 
egg  which  eventually  sets  in  and  this  is  accomplished  by 
placing  the  eggs  in  a  low  temperature  or  by  closing  the 
pores  of  the  eggshell  to  the  entrance  of  this  germ  life. 
Sometimes  both  methods  are  employed.  Eggs  preserved 
by  any  process  are  more  easily  injured  by  the  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold. 

Obtaining  the  Eggs — The  homes  gather  them  from  the 
flock  or  buy  them  of  the  neighbors.  The  stores  take 
223 


224        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

them  in  trade  from  the  surrounding  country.  The  pack- 
ing houses  and  cold  storage  plants  buy  them  from  the 
commission  men  or  have  special  agents  in  the  interior 
towns.  In  spring  time  commences  the  steady  flow  of 
eggs  to  all  these  various  destinations,  good  eggs,  bad 
eggs,  all  kinds  of  eggs.  These  are  to  be  handled  and 
many  discarded  before  being  preserved  for  future  use. 
The  clean,  well  graded,  fresh  egg  is  always  at  a  premium 
for  both  food  value  and  easy  preservation,  hence  is  most 
eagerly  sought  for  that  purpose.  Eggs  that  are  infertile 
are  also  better  keepers. 

Candling  or  Testing  Out  the  Eggs — It  is  essential 
that  every  egg  put  into  a  preservative  or  placed  in  cold 
storage  shall  be  clean  and'  fresh  or  at  least  a  perfectly 
sound  egg.  One  bad  egg  in  either  case  might  spoil  several 
and  thus  the  profits  lost.  To  insure  that  all  are  good  the 
eye  should  not  be  trusted  even  if  they  are  known  to  be 
fresh  laid.  They  should  all  be  tested.  One  way  consists 
of  holding  the  egg  between  the  eye  and  the  light  so  that 
the  contents  may  be  readily  seen.  There  are  many  appli- 
ances for  this  process  called  candling  and  some  of  them 
are  very  simple.  An  operator  soon  learns  to  discriminate 
between  eggs,  discarding  the  old  and  spoiled  ones.  In 
this  connection  make  a  study  of  eggs  in  other  chapters 
of  this  work. 

Other  methods  employed  are  to  use  liquids  into  which 
the  egg  is  placed.  Some  use  water  while  others  use 
brine  whose  strength  is  known  by  using  two  ounces  of 
common  table  salt  dissolved  in  one  pint  of  water.  A 
perfectly  fresh  egg  will  sink  to  the  bottom  at  once  and 
tend  to  lie  upon  its  side.  If  nearly  fresh  it  will  go  below 
the  surface  with  the  small  end  lower  than  the  larger  or 
air  cell  end  of  the  egg.  If  old  or  stale  it  will  float  big 
end    upright,    the    amount    of    egg    exposed    increasing 


Methods  of  Preserving  Eggs  225 

with  the  staleness  of  the  egg  and  the  density  of  the  brine. 
A  water-glass  sokition  of  one  and  four  will  also  answer 
the  purpose. 

Methods  of  Preserving — There  are  several  distinct 
methods  of  preserving  eggs,  the  chief  classes  of  which 
are: 

1.  Cold   storage. 

2.  Liquid  preservatives. 

3.  External    coatings. 

4.  Evaporation. 

5.  Packing  in  loose  materials. 

These  methods  are  of  different  values  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  discussions  following. 

1.  Cold  Storage — This  method  is  the  one  by  which 
larger  quantities  of  eggs  are  stored  during  the  spring 
season  and  placed  upon  the  market  during  the  season  of 
high  prices.  This  has  caused  higher  prices  during 
the  spring  and  summer  and  lower  prices  than  formerly 
during  the  fall  and  winter.  Cold  storage  has  also  helped 
to  make  the  egg  prices  fairly  uniform  during  the  same 
months  of  each  year.  Cold  storage  is  essentially  a  meth- 
od employed  by  dealers  only  and  does  not  answer  for 
the  purposes  of  the  home  or  small  dealer.  Cold  storage 
is  what  the  name  implies  and  consists  merely  of  keeping 
the  eggs  in  a  low  temperature  as  near  the  freezing  point 
as  is  practicable.  The  cold  storage  building  must  be  sweet 
and  clean  and  ventilation  correct.  The  temperature  must 
be  capable  of  good  control.  Care  must  be  exercised  to 
allow  only  proper  goods  to  be  stored  or  the  contents  of 
other  packages  will  be  spoiled  by  contamination. 

The  eggs  used  for  cold  storage  must  be  fresh,  sweet 
and  clean.  They  must  not  be  washed  as  washing  takes 
off  the  mucilaginous  coating  of  the  fresh  egg  and  they 
will  quickly  evaporate  and  deteriorate  under  cold  storage, 


226        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

thus  endangering  others.  Care  should  be  exercised  that 
no  eggs  are  cracked  before  storing. 

The  most  usual  package  for  storing  eggs  is  a  new 
thirty  dozen  standard  egg  case  with  new  pasteboard 
fillers.  Once  used  they  are  sold  cheaply  as  second  hand 
cases.  When  placed  in  and  taken  out  of  storage  they  are 
subjected  to  a  graduated  temperature  to  accustom  them 
to  the  change.  The  handling  and  care  while  in  stor- 
age is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  management  of  the 
building.  Many  smaller  dealers  sublet  storage  space,  pay- 
ing for  the  room  and  care  at  a  certain  rate  per  foot  or 
upon  a  certain  percentage  basis  as  per  agreement. 

The  length  of  time  eggs  will  keep  in  cold  storage  de- 
pends entirely  upon  the  condition  of  the  eggs  and  the 
cleanliness  of  the  package  when  placed  in  storage  and 
upon  the  degree  of  perfection  attained  in  constructing 
the  building  as  well  as  in  its  subsequent  operation. 
Storage  eggs  have  been  known  to  keep  fairly  well  for 
nearly  a  year,  while  a  few  months  is  the  limit  for  the 
average  storage. 

2.  Liquid  Preservatives — There  are  two  main  solutions 
used  for  this  purpose.  One  is  sodium  silicate  or  water 
glass  and  the  other  is  limewater.  Both  are  extensively 
used,  the  latter  being  the  method  of  caring  for  the  sur- 
plus dirty  eggs  of  the  commission  houses  for 
short  periods.  The  former  will  preserve  eggs  the 
longer  period,  while  the  latter  is  the  cheaper.  In  each 
way,  upon  removing  them  from  the  preservative  and 
boiling,  the  shell  is  liable  to  crack,  owing  to  the  closed 
pores.  Hence  by  puncturing  the  large  end  the  dan- 
ger of  cracking  is  avoided.  For  good  results  in  either 
method  use  only  fresh,  clean  eggs,  being  careful  no 
cracked  shells  exist.  Infertile  eggs  are  better  if  obtainable. 
Do  not  wash  eggs  for  preserving.     Keep  in  a  dry,  clean 


Methods  of  Preserving  Eggs  227 

place  free  from  odors  and  having  a  cool,  steady  temper- 
ature without  danger  of  freezing. 

Water  Glass — This  is  a  good  method  for  few  or  many 
eggs  and  is  uniformly  successful.  It  will  cost  about  one 
cent  per  dozen  unless  purchased  in  large  quantities.  It 
should  not  cost  to  exceed  seventy-five  cents  per  gallon 
when  purchased  in  single  gallons  and  much  less  in  bulk. 
The  druggist  should  be  careful  not  to  supply  that  which 
IS  alkaline  as  eggs  will  spoil  in  such  a  solution.  Water 
glass  is  no  violation  of  any  pure  food  law  and  comes 
in  liquid  and  powder  form.  The  former  is  preferable. 
In  making  the  solution  add  one  part  of  the  liquid  water 
glass  to  nine  parts  of  water  which  has  first  been  boiled 
and  cooled.  Ten  gallons  of  the  solution  will  preserve 
fifty  dozen  eggs. 

The  container  may  be  any  sweet,  clean  barrel,  tub, 
crockery  or  stoneware  but  do  not  use  metal  containers. 
Pack  all  eggs  into  the  container  with  the  small  end  down 
and  then  pour  over  them  enough  solution  to  cover  to  a 
depth  of  two  inches.  If  not  enough  eggs  are  to  be  had 
at  once  add  them  from  time  to  time  but  always  keeping 
the  liquid  two  inches  above  the  last  layer  of  eggs. 

When  it  is  desired  to  use  the  eggs  take  them  out  of 
the  solution  or  pour  ofif  the  liquid,  rinsing  them  and  let- 
ting them  dry.  If  desired  give  them  a  dip  into  lime 
water  to  take  ofif  the  glassy  appearance,  after  which  dry 
well.  One  will  find  them  apparently  fresh,  breaking  up 
well,  and  in  no  way  injured  for  food. 

Limewater — In  liming  eggs  care  should  be  used  in 
preparing  the  solution.  If  the  tendency  toward  a  limy 
taste  is  not  desired  rub  each  egg  with  vaseline  or  lard 
before  packing.  If  eggs  have  been  kept  very  many 
months  by  this  method  it  is  well  to  candle  them  before 
using.     Too  much  lime  in  the  solution  makes  the  shells 


228        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

very  rough.  There  are  many  small  variations  in  the 
instructions  given  for  making  limewater.  Some  say  fif- 
teen gallons  of  water,  five  pounds  of  salt,  and  one 
peck  of  finely  slaked  lime  make  a  good  limewater.  We 
will  give  below  the  formula  taken  from  one  of  the  re- 
cent annual  reports  of  the  National  Butter  and  Egg  as- 
sociation and  by  dividing  the  amounts  of  the  ingredients 
therein  by  any  desired  figure  one  can  have  any  amount 
of  solution  needed : 

"To  make  the  pickle,  use  stone  lime,  fine  salt  and  water 
in  the  following  proportions:  One  bushel  of  lime,  8  qts 
of  salt,  25  10-qt.  pails  of  water.  The  lime  must  be  lime 
that  will  slake  white,  fine  and  clean.  Have  the  salt  clean 
and  the  water  pure  and  sweet,  free  from  all  vegetable 
or  decomposed  matter. 

"  Slake  the  lime  with  a  portion  of  the  water,  then  add 
the  balance  of  the  water  and  the  salt.  Stir  well  three  or 
four  times  at  intervals,  and  then  let  it  stand  until  well  set- 
tled and  cold.  Either  dip  or  draw  off  the  clear  pickle 
into  the  cask  or  vat  in  which  it  is  intended  to  preserve  the 
eggs.  When  the  cask  or  vat  is  filled  to  a  depth  of  15  or 
18  inches,  begin  to  put  in  the  eggs,  and  when  they  lie, 
say  about  one  foot  deep,  spread  around  over  them  some 
pickle  that  is  a  little  milky  in  appearance,  made  so  by  stir- 
ring up  some  of  the  very  light  lime  particles  that  settle 
last,  and  continue  doing  this  as  each  lot  of  eggs  is  added. 
The  object  of  this  is  to  have  the  fine  lime  particles  drawn 
into  the  pores  of  the  shells,  as  they  will  be  by  a  kind  of 
inductive  process,  and  thereby  completely  seal  the  eggs. 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  get  too  much  of  the  lime  in — 
that  is,  not  enough  to  settle  and  stick  to  the  shells  of  the 
eggs,  and  render  them  difficult  to  clean  when  taken  out. 
(The  chief  cause  of  thin,  watery  whites  in  limed  eggs  is 
that  they  are  not  properly  sealed  in  the  manner  described. 
Another  cause  is  the  putting  into  the  pickle  old,  stale  eggs 
that  have  thin,  weak  whites).  When  the  eggs  are  within 
4  inches  of  the  top  of  the  cask  or  vat,  cover  them  with 
factory  cloth,  and  spread  on  two  or  three  inches  of  the 
lime  that  settles  in  making  the  pickle,  and  it  is  of  the  great- 


Methods  of  Preserving  Eggs  229 

est  importance  that  the  pickle  be  kept  continually  up  over 
this  lime.  A  tin  basin  (holding  about  six  to  eight  dozen 
eggs),  punched  quite  full  of  inch  holes,  edge  muffled  with 
leather,  and  a  suitable  handle  about  3  feet  long  attached, 
will  be  found  convenient  for  putting  the  eggs  into  the 
pickle.  Fill  the  basin  with  eggs,  put  both  under  the  pickle 
and  turn  the  eggs  out,  they  will  go  to  the  bottom  without 
breaking. 

"  When  the  time  comes  to  market  the  eggs,  they  must 
be  taken  out  of  the  pickle,  cleaned,  dried  and  packed.  To 
clean  them,  secure  half  of  a  molasses  hogshead,  or  some- 
thing like  it,  filling  the  same  about  half  full  of  water. 
Have  a  sufficient  number  of  crates  of  the  right  size  (to 
hold  20  to  25  dozen  eggs)  made  of  laths  or  other  slats, 
placed  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  apart.  Sink  one  of 
these  crates  in  the  half  hogshead,  take  the  basin  used  to 
put  the  eggs  into  the  pickle,  dip  the  eggs  by  raising  it  up 
and  down  in  the  water,  and  if  necessary  to  properly  clean 
them,  set  the  crate  up  and  douse  water  over  the  eggs, 
then,  if  any  eggs  are  found,  when  packing,  that  the  lime 
is  not  fully  removed  from,  they  should  be  laid  out  and  all 
the  lime  cleaned  off  before  packing.  When  the  eggs  are 
carefully  washed  they  can  be  set  up  or  out  in  a  suitable 
place  to  dry,  in  the  crates.  They  should  dry  quickly,  and 
be  packed  as  soon  as  dry.  In  packing,  the  same  rules 
should   be   observed   as   in   packing   fresh   eggs. 

"  Vats  built  in  a  cellar  around  the  walls,  with  about 
half  their  depth  below  the  surface,  about  4  or  5  feet  deep, 
6  feet  long,  and  4  feet  wide,  are  usually  considered  the 
best  for  preserving  eggs  in,  although  many  use  and  prefer 
large  tubs  made  of  wood.  The  place  in  which  the  vats  are 
built,  or  the  tubs  kept,  should  be  clean  and  sweet,  free 
from  all  bad  odors,  and  where  a  steady,  low  temperature  can 
be  maintained — the  lower  the  better,  that  is.  down  to  any 
point  above  freezing." 

3.  External  Coatings — Pack  all  eggs  small  end  down. 
Lard — Applied  by  hand  or  rolled  in  melted  lard  to  cover 
all  parts.  Keep  in  cool  place.  Keeping  qualities  not 
steady.    Beeswax  and  parafifine — Cut  to  a  solution  or  ap- 


230        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

plied  mechanically — both  hard  to  apply.  Latter  best  of 
two  and  good  keeper  if  in  a  cool  place.  Vaseline — Ap- 
ply cold  or  rolled  in  melted  vaseline  and  keep  in  cool 
place.  Highly  recommended,  costing  one-tenth  cent  per 
dozen! 

4.  Evaporation — Eggs  are  condensed  by  driving  out 
the  water  and  adding  sugar.  One  pound  of  the  product 
contains  about  fifteen  eggs.  To  prepare  add  water,  beat 
up  and  use.  They  have  many  qualities  of  fresh  eggs. 
Other  methods  are  being  tested  to  improve  the  product 
obtained  by  evaporation  and  condensation. 

5.  Packing  in  Loose  Materials — This  method  is  really 
but  an  attempt  to  hold  air  away  from  the  eggs.  Place 
small  end  down  in  dry  salt,  bran,  powdered  charcoal, 
sand,  oats,  chafif  and  other  materials  and  keep  in  a  cool 
place.  While  this  method  will  avail  for  a  short  time 
it  is  not  very  satisfactory.  Dry  salt  is  the  best  material, 
using  alternating  layers  of  the  salt  and  eggs. 


Chapter  XVI. 

FOOD  \'ALUE  OF  POULTRY  PRODUCTS. 

General. 

The  use  of  poultry  products  as  food  by  mankind  is  as 
old  as  any  records  of  man,  however  crude.  Perhaps  no 
other  form  of  animal  life  is  more  universally  used  by 
all  peoples  in  all  lands.  While  this  article  has  to  do  more 
with  the  domesticated  poultry,  yet  the  wild  products  are 
used  extensively  even  by  civilized  peoples.  A  regular 
industry  exists  in  certain  sections  of  the  world  which 
furnishes  the  eggs  and  meat  products  of  wild  fowls  to 
definite  markets.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  eggs  of 
sea  birds. 

There  is  quite  a  variety  in  the  poultry  products.  Eggs 
are  of  various  sizes  and  colors,  depending  upon  the  size 
of  the  fowl  and  the  provision  nature  made  for  their 
natural  protection  before  mankind  domesticated  them. 
Their  structure  has  been  described  elsewhere.  The  aver- 
age weight  per  dozen  of  the  eggs  of  the  hen  varies 
from  seventeen  to  twenty-eight  ounces,  depending  upon 
the  age  and  breed.  The  duck,  turkey,  goose,  swan  and 
other  heavier  birds  lay  correspondingly  larger  and  heav- 
ier eggs.  The  present  method  of  selling  eggs  by  the 
dozen,  regardless  of  weight,  must  in  justice  give  way  at 
some  time  in  the  near  future  to  that  of  selling  by  the 
pound.  The  objections  raised  against  such  a  course  are 
that  there  would  be  a  greater  cost  of  handling  and  that 
recipes  usually  call  for  eggs  by  number.     The  variation 

231 


22>: 


Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Cultukk 


in  the  meat  products  of  poultry  is  marked  by  dififering 
color,  texture  and  flavor. 

The  poultry  products  industry  has  grown  very  rapidly 
in  the  last  few  years  and  has  assumed  a  leading  place  in 
the  government  experimental  station  work  and  in  its 
commercial  proportions.  A'ery  few  animal  or  field  prod- 
ucts reach  the  annual  grand  total  of  this  industry.     Its 


SILVER  LACED  WYANDOTTES. 
Courtesy    of   Julius   Bachmann. 


many  distinct  lines  lend  employment  to  a  vast  army  of 
people  which  is  rapidly  increasing  each  season. 

The  time  has  long  since  passed  when  any  Qgg  or  fowl 
was  as  good  as  any  other  of  its  kind.  The  public  is 
discriminating  closely  in  favor  of  the  clean,  fresh,  well- 
shaped  and  fair-sized  Qgg  because  it  is  realizing  that 
the  food  and  health  value  is  impaired  by  age,  filth  and 
other  conditions.    Candling  is  the  usual  test  of  the  condi- 


Food  Value  of  Poultry  Products  233 

tion  of  an  egg.  The  public  also  has  learned  to  distin- 
guish between  a  }oung,  well  fed,  fresh  and  properly 
dressed  fowl  and  the  bird  which  has  seen  age  and  mal- 
treatment. If  the  bird  is  young  the  breastbone  will 
be  pliable  (if  not  broken  to  deceive),  the  feet  and 
legs  will  be  soft  and  smooth,  the  claws  will  be 
sharp,  the  spur  straight  or  undeveloped,  the  comb  and 
wattles  not  developed  or  not  shrunken,  the  wing  feathers 
more  pointed,  and  the  general  appearance  of  the  dressed 
bird  should  be  plump  and  fresh.  The  methods  and  form 
of  marketing  poultry  products  are  given  elsewhere. 

The  flajor  and  quality  of  any  poultry  product 
is  affected  by  the  sex,  age,  exercise  and  methods  of  feed- 
ing. Males  are  usually  more  tough  and  more  highly 
flavored.  Age  and  exercise  give  toughness  and  a 
stronger  flavor.  Special  foods  tend  to  impart  flavor  to 
both  the  eggs  and  tlie  flesh.  Feed  onions  or  fish  in  quan- 
tities and  both  will  be  tasted  in  the  product.  The  special 
flavor  of  certain  wild  game  is  due  to  the  nature  of  the 
food  obtained  from  their  feeding  ground.  The  ease  with 
which  a  food  is  digested  may  also  affect  the  tenderness 
of  the  flesh.  Therefore  ground  grain  seems  better  than 
whole  grain  to  prepare  flesh  for  food,  and  rich  nitro- 
genous foods  or  special  grain  will  affect  the  color  and 
flavor  of  the  flesh.  Methods  of  feeding  any  food  affect 
the  tenderness  and  flavor,  depending  upon  whether  the 
fowl  is  kept  quiet  so  that  all  the  tissues  may  take  on 
fat  more  evenly  or  the  deposits  are  made  in  certain  parts 
only.  The  advocates  of  crate  fattening  and  those  who 
claim  as  good  results  from  free  runs  are  about  evenly 
divided  in  the  United  States.  A  well-balanced  ration 
gives  better  flavor  to  both  eggs  and  flesh. 
Cooking  Poultry  Products. 

Eggs — The  following  regarding  eggs  is  taken  from  a 


234        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

United  States  government  report  edited  by  C.  F,  Lang- 
worthy,  Ph.  D. 

Cooked  in  various  ways  eggs  are  a  favorite  animal  food, 
taking  the  place  of  meat  to  a  certain  extent,  while  raw  eggs, 
usually  seasoned  in  some  way,  are  by  no  means  infrequently 
eaten.  Boiled  eggs  are  often  used  for  garnishing  or  orna- 
menting dififerent  foods.  Eggs  are  combined  with  other 
materials  in  various  ways  in  many  made  dishes.  They  are 
used  in  making  cak.s  and  such  foods  to  improve  their 
flavor,  color,  and  texture,  while  in  custards,  creams,  etc., 
they  thicken  the  material  and  give  it  the  desired  consistency. 
The  white  of  the  egg  is  also  employed  in  making  icings  and 
confectionery.  Well-beaten  or  whipped  egg  white  is  used 
to  leaven  many  forms  of  cakes  and  similar  foods,  as  well 
as  to  improve  the  flavor.  The  beaten  white  incloses  air  in 
small  bubbles,  which  become  'distributed  throughout  the 
mass  of  dough  in  mixing.  The  heat  of  cooking  expands  the 
air  and  makes  the  walls  of  the  air  bubbles  firm,  so  that  the 
porous  structure  is  retained.  The  power  to  inclose  and  re- 
tain air  when  beaten  varies,  being  greatest  in  the  fresh  egg 
and  much  lessened  in  packed  or  old  eggs.  Convenient  leav- 
ening powders  have  lessened  the  number  of  eggs  used  for 
tl.is  purpose.  Sponge  cake,  however,  is  a  familiar  example 
of  food  so  leavened.  This  use  of  eggs  explains  some  of  the 
recipes  in  old  cookery  books  which  call  for  such  large  num- 
bers of  eggs.  These  uses  are  all  familiar;  th  reasons  for 
them  are  doubtless  seldom  thought  of. 

There  are  several  simple  ways  of  cooking  eggs  which  are 
very  commonly  followed.  Thus,  the  egg  in  the  shell  is 
cooked  by  immersion  in  hot  or  boiling  water  or  is  less  com- 
monly roasted.  After  removal  from  the  shell,  the  egg  is 
cooked  in  hot  water  or  in  hot  fat.  In  the  latter  case  it  may 
or  may  not  be  beaten  or  stirred.  Combined  with  other  ma- 
terials to  form  various  made  dishes,  eggs  are  boiled,  baked, 
steamed,  or  fried,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  total  number 
of  methods  of  serving  and  preparing  eggs  is  very  large, 
but  in  nearly  every  case  it  will  be  found  that  the  method  of 
preparation  is  only  a  more  or  less  elaborate  modification  of 
one  of  the   simple  methods  of  cooking. 

Changes  in  weight,  which  are  dependent  on  the  methods 


Food  Value  of  Poultry  Products  235 

of  cooking,  are  commonly  noted  when  foods  are  prepared 
for  the  table,  losses  in  weight  being  due  in  general  to  the 
volatilization  and  gains  to  the  absorption  of  water.  Carpiaux 
found  that  when  eggs  were  cooked  for  an  hour  in  a  steam 
bath  the  loss  in  weight  was  insignificant,  ranging  from  0.03 
to  0.01  gram  per  egg.  Camus  found  that  with  boiled  eggs 
there  was  more  or  less  loss  owing  to  evaporation  of  a  little 
water  through  the  porous  shell.  If  the  egg  cooled  in  the 
water  it  absorbed  a  little  of  it  and  gained  in  weight.  The 
method  of  manipulation  must  have  some  effect  on  the 
changes  in  weight,  for  Lebbin  reports  that  boiled  eggs 
gained  on  an  average  about  0.5  gram,  probably  because  a 
little  water  passed  through  the  shell.  From  the  tests  as  a 
whole  it  is  evident  that  the  changes  in  weight  in  all  cases 
are  small  and  not  sufficient  to  modify  the  food  value  to  any 
appreciable   extent. 

When  cooked  in  different  ways  there  are  marked  changes 
in  the  appearance  and  structure  of  eggs.  As  ordinarily  ap- 
plied, the  term  "boiled  eggs"  refers  to  eggs  cooked  in  the 
shell  in  hot,  though  not  necessarily  boiling,  water.  The 
resulting  product  varies  greatly,  according  to  the  length  of 
time  the  cooking  is  continued,  the  method  of  procedure, 
etc.  Perhaps  the  most  usual  household  method  of  "  boiling 
eggs  "  is  to  immerse  them  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time  in 
boiling  water.  An  egg  placed  in  boiling  water  not  over 
2  minutes  will  have  a  thin  coating  of  coagulated  white  next 
the  skin,  the  remainder  will  be  milky,  but  not  solid,  while 
the  yolk,  though  warm,  will  be  entirely  fluid.  This  stage 
may  be  called  "very  soft  boiled."  If  the  egg  is  kept  in 
boiling  water  2  minutes,  or  a  little  over,  the  white  becomes 
entirely  coagulated.  The  egg  thus  cooked  may  be  termed 
"  waxy."  If  the  boiling  is  extended  to  3  minutes  or  so,  the 
egg  shows  a  tendency  to  rise  in  the  water  and  will  be  solid 
throughout,  i.  e.,  "  solid  boiled."  If  the  boiling  is  continued 
up  to  10  minutes  or  longer,  the  "  hard-boiled  "  egg  results. 
The  white  of  such  an  egg  is  hard  and  elastic  and  the  yolk 
crumbles  readily.  All  these  changes  are  due  prinicpally  to 
the  more  or  less  complete  coagulation  and  hardening  of  the 
albumen  of  the  egg  by  heat. 

Numerous  experiments  have  been  made  to  show  the 
changes    which    actually    take    place    when    egg    albumen    is 


236        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

heated.  If  the  egg  white  is  gently  warmed,  no  change  is 
noticed  until  the  temperature  reaches  134°  F.,  when  coagula- 
tion begins.  White  fibers  appear,  which  become  more  nu- 
merous, until  at  about  160°  F.  the  whole  mass  is  coagulated, 
the  white  almost  opaque,  yet  it  is  tender  and  jelly-like.  If 
the  temperature  is  raised  to  212°  F.  (the  temperature  of 
boiling  water)  and  continued,  the  coagulated  albumen  be- 
comes much  harder,  and  eventually  more  or  less  tough  and 
horn-like;  it  also  undergoes  shrinkage.  When  the  whole 
egg  is  cooked  in  boiling  water,  the  temperature  of  the  in- 
terior does  not  immediately  reach  212°  F.,  several  minutes 
being  probably  required.  It  has  been  found  by  experiment 
that  the  yolk  of  egg  coagulates  firmly  at  a  lower  tempera- 
ture than  the  white. 

The  changes  in  the  albumen  noted  above  suggest  the  idea 
that  it  is  not  desirable  to  cook  eggs  in  boiling  water  in  or- 
der to  secure  the  most  satisfactory  product.  Those  who 
have  given  attention  to  the  science  as  well  as  the  practice 
of  cookery  recommend  "  soft-cooked,"  "  medium-cooked," 
and  "  hard-cooked  "  eggs,  all  of  which  are  cooked  at  a  tem- 
perature lower  than  212°  F.  In  soft-cooked  eggs,  properly 
prepared,  the  white  resembles  a  soft,  thick  curd,  while  the 
yolk  is  fluid.  Except  for  a  suggestion  of  rawness,  there 
will  be  little  flavor,  provided  fresh  eggs  are  used.  Medium- 
cooked  eggs  are  more  thoroughly  cooked  than  those  just 
mentioned,  the  results  being  secured  by  longer  cooking  or 
by  a  somewhat  higher  temperature.  The  white  is  soft  and 
tender  and  the  yolk  slightly  thickened.  The  flavor  (which 
is  developed  by  cooking)  is  more  pronounced  than  that  of 
a  soft-cooked  egg  and  is  generally  considered  more  agree- 
able. 

When  an  egg  is  covered  with  boiling  water  in  a  bain-marie 
or  double  boiler,  and  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  the 
outer  vessel  maintained  at  180-190°  F.  for  30  to  45  minutes, 
the  hard-cooked  egg  results,  with  the  yolk  dry  and  mealy 
and  the  white  solid,  yet  tender. 

The  directions  given  for  preparing  soft-cooked,  medium- 
cooked,  and  hard-cooked  eggs  vary.  The  methods  described 
in  standard  cookery  books  without  doubt  give  the  desired 
results  if  sufficient  care  is  exercised.  The  chief  difficulty  en- 
countered   by    most    cooks    is    to    secure    uniform    results, 


Food  Value  of  Poultry  Products  237 

especially  with  soft-cooked  and  medium-cooked  eggs.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  such  results  can  not  be  expected 
when  conditions  vary.  The  time  of  cooking,  the  amount  of 
water  used,  the  number,  size,  and  freshness  of  the  eggs,  and 
the  kinds  of  vessels  used  are  important  factors.  Thus,  eggs 
which  have  been  kept  in  an  ice  chest  require  more  heat  to 
warm  them  before  cooking  begins  than  do  those  which  have 
been  kept  at  room  temperature.  Again,  so  apparently  trivial 
a  detail  as  the  sort  of  vessel  used  (whether  earthen  or  metal) 
or  the  place  where  the  vessel,  stands  during  cooking  may 
produce  very  different  results.  ]\Iany  persons  prefer  to  have 
eggs  cooked  at  table  in  a  chafing  dish  or  other  suitable 
vessel.  In  such  cases  the  conditions  may  be  controlled  with 
comparative  ease  and  uniform  results  obtained  with  a  little 
practice  if  care   is  observed. 

The  following  methods  of  preparing  soft-.cooked  and 
medium-cooked  eggs  have  been  found  to  give  uniform  re- 
sults in  laboratory  tests  at  the  University  of  Illinois:  Using 
a  granite-ware  stewpan  of  1  quart  capacity,  1  pint  of  water 
was  heated  over  a  gas  flame;  when  the  water  boiled  the  gas 
was  turned  oflf  and  an  egg  which  had  been  kept  in  a  refrig- 
erator was  dropped  into  the  water.  Without  disturbing  the 
vessel  it  was  covered  closely  and  the  egg  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  water  6  minutes.  It  was  then  soft  cooked.  As  shown 
by  tests,  when  the  egg  was  dropped  into  the  water,  the 
temperature  fell  almost  at  once  to  185°  F.  and  then  slowly 
to  170-171°  F.  If  the  egg  remained  in  the  water  8  minutes, 
it  was  medium  cooked,  the  temperature  of  the  water  at  the 
end  of  the  period  having  fallen  to   162-164°   F. 

Uniform  results  can  be  obtained  in  the  kitchen  as  well  as 
in  the  laboratory  if  sufficient  attention  is  given  to  details. 
Bearing  clearly  in  mind  the  end  desired,  each  cook  must 
experiment  for  herself,  as  it  is  impossible  to  give  directions 
which  will  apply  to  all  cases. 

The  same  changes  which  have  been  noted  above  as  taking 
place  in  egg  yolk  and  white  when  heat  is  applied  in  preparing 
boiled  eggs  take  place  when  other  methods  of  cooking  are 
followed,   though   they   are   not   always   apparent. 

Poached  or  dropped  eggs  are  removed  from  the  shell  and 
then  cooked  in  water.  Thudichum  recommends  the  use  of 
salted  water  to  which  a  very  little  vinegar  has  been  added. 


238        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

The  reason  for  this  is  perhaps  that  acetic  acid  (vinegar) 
tends  to  precipitate  alhumen — that  is,  to  prevent  a  loss  due 
to  some  of  the  egg  being  dissolved  in  the  water.  Flavor 
may  also  be  one  of  the  objects  sought. 

Fried  eggs  are  generally  cooked  in  a  flat  pan,  in  a  little 
hot  fat,  oil,  or  butter,  and  may  be  either  soft  or  hard,  ac- 
cording to  the  length  of  time  employed  in  the  process.  Eggs 
are  also  occasionally  baked  in  much  the  same  manner  that 
they  are   fried. 

The  omelet  is  generally  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  ap- 
petizing forms  in  which  eggs  can  be  served.  It  consists  of 
the  beaten  egg  with  a  little  milk,  water,  and  cream  or  melted 
butter  added,  quickly  cooked  in  a  little  fat  or  butter  in  a 
suitable  pan,  and  folded  over  so  that  it  may  be  turned  out 
of  the  pan  in  a  half-round  form.  Some  cooks  insist  that  the 
best  omelets  are  made  by  using  hot  water  instead  of  milk 
or  cream.  The  hot  water  is  stirred  into  the  egg  yolk  in  the 
proportion  of  1  tablespoonful  to  an  egg.  Scrambled  eggs 
resemble  an  omelet  in  method  of  preparation,  but  no  efifort 
is  made  to  preserve  the  characteristic  form  and  appearance 
of  the  omelet.  Generally  speaking,  lightness  is  desired  in 
an  omelet  and  thorough  mixing  in  scrambled  eggs.  The 
former  is  secured  by  beating;  the  latter  by  stirring.  Omelets 
are  sometimes  made  with  the  addition  of  various  materials, 
such  as  parsley,  jams,  etc.  Many  so-called  omelets  are  made 
in  which  flour  is  used.  These  are  more  properly  pancakes, 
and  vary  very  greatly  according  to  the  ingredients  used. 
Such  dishes,  as  well  as  sweet  omelets,  etc.,  are  treated  of  in 
cookery  books,  as  are  also  many  other  ways  of  serving  eggs 
which  are  in  principle  the  same  as  those  already  noted,  but 
in  which  the  final  appearance  is  more  or  less  modified. 

The  foods  in  which  eggs  are  combined  with  other  ma- 
terials range  from  a  simple  custard  or  cake  to  the  most 
elaborate  of  the  confectioner's  products.  In  all  such  dishes, 
as  previously  noted,  eggs  are  used  to  give  consistency,  color, 
flavor,  or  lightness. 

Eggs  are  especially  rich  in  protein  (the  nitrogenous  ingre- 
dient of  food).  This  material  is  required  by  man  to  build 
and  repair  the  tissues  of  the  body.  Some  energy  is  also 
furnished  by  protein,  but  fats  and  carbohydrates  supply  the 
greater  part  of  the   total  amount  needed.     Combining  eggs 


Food  Value  of  Poultry  Products  239 

with  flour  and  sugar  (carbohydrates)  and  butter,  cream,  etc. 
(fat),  is  perhaps  an  unconscious  eflfort  to  prepare  a  food 
which  shall  more  nearly  meet  the  requirements  of  the  body 
than  either  ingredient  alone.  Wlien  eggs,  meat,  fish,  cheese, 
or  other  similar  foods  rich  in  protein  are  eaten,  such  other 
foods  as  bread,  butter,  potatoes,  etc.,  are  usually  served  at 
the  same  time,  the  object  being,  even  if  the  fact  is  not  real- 
ized, to  combine  the  different  classes  of  nutrients  into  a 
suitable  diet.  The  wisdom  of  such  combination,  as  well  as 
of  other  generally  accepted  food  habits,  was  proved  long 
ago  by  practical  experience.  The  reason  has  been  more 
slowly  learned. 

As  previously  stated,  egg  white  when  heated  at  the  tem- 
perature of  boiling  water  for  a  considerable  time  becomes 
hard  and  contracts.  This  explains  the  curdling  of  custards, 
shrinkage  and  toughening  of  omelets,  souffles,  meringes, 
sponge  cake  and  similar  mixtures.  The  firm  coagulation  of 
albumen  at  212°  F.  explains  the  use  of  egg  white  for  clarify- 
ing coffee,  soup  or  other  liquids.  The  albumen,  which  is 
mixed  with  the  liquid  before  boiling,  coagulates  and  incloses 
the  floating  particles,  leaving  the  liquor  clear.  When  eggs 
are  removed  from  the  shell,  a  little  of  the  white  usually 
clings  to  the  inner  surface  unless  it  is  scraped.  Such  egg- 
shells are  often  used  for  clarifying  purposes  instead  of  the 
whole  egg.  The  clarifying  properties  are,  of  course,  due  to 
the  egg  white  and  not  to  the  shells. 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that  when  eggs  are 
boiled  the  yolk  where  it  joins  the  white  has  often  a  more  or 
less  marked  greenish  color.  Contact  with  the  white  renders 
the  surface  of  the  yolk  somewhat  alkaline.  Experiment  has 
shown  that  when  egg  white  and  many  other  proteids  are 
heated  hydrogen  sulphid  or  some  other  volatile  sulphur 
body  is  quite  commonly  liberated  in  small  amounts,  and 
Rubner  has  found  that  the  discoloration  of  the  egg  yolk  is 
due  to  the  action  of  the  hydrogen  sulphid  thus  produced  on 
the  iron  of  the  vitellin  of  egg  yolk  in  the  presence  of  alkali. 

Flesh  of  Poultry — From  a  United  States  report  by 
Helen  W.  Atwater  the  following  is  quoted : 

The  heat  of  cooking  develops  pleasant  flavors,  but  this  is 
only  one   of  several   uses  which   cooking  serves.      If  carried 


240        SciExcn:  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

far  enough,  tlic  licat  kills  dangerous  parasites  or  micro- 
organisms, if  such  be  present,  and  produces  certain  chemical 
and  physical  changes  which  probably  make  the  meat  some- 
what more  digestible. 

The  muscular  tissues  which  form  the  greater  part  of 
poultry  flesh  are  composed  of  fibers  and  connective  tissue 
of  varying  toughness.  Long,  slow  cooking,  as  in  stewing, 
gradually  softens  these  fibers  and  connective  tissues,  and 
thus  gives  the  digestive  juices  a  better  chance  to  act  upon 
them.  On  the  otiier  hand,  the  protein  (nitrogenous  sub- 
stance found  in  the  lean  of  meat)  is  hardened  by  the  strong 
heat,  much  as  white  of  egg,  which  it  resembles  in  chemical 
composition,  hardens  in  boiling.  Protein  thus  hardened  or 
coagulated  is  probably  less  easily  digested  than  slightly 
cooked  or  raw  protein,  but  this  disadvantage  in  the  cooked 
meat  is  more  than  compensated  by  its  more  attractive  taste 
and  appearance.  The  heat  of  cooking  also  develops  acids  in 
the  lean  of  the  meat,  which  soften  the  fiber  much  as  the 
digestive  juices  themselves  do,  and  thus  aid  digestion.  The 
fats,  too,  are  afifected  by  the  heat,  being  separated  from  the 
flesh  to  some  extent  and  in  part  changed  in  flavor  by  brown- 
ing more  or  less.  Of  course  in  cooking  some  fat  tries  out 
from  the  meat,  and  water  is  driven  off  as  steam  or  vapor 
by  the  heat.  Hence  a  fowl  or  any  piece  of  meat  when 
cooked  will  weigh  perceptibly  less  than  before  it  went  into 
the  pot  or  oven.  Such  loss  is  less  noticeable  in  poultry  than 
in  cuts  from  larger  animals,  in  which  a  greater  surface  of 
the  flesh  is  directly  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  heat. 

Boiling,  stewing,  roasting,  broiling,  and  frying  are  the 
methods  of  cooking  ordinarily  used  with  poultry,  as  with 
other  meats. 

In  boiling  and  stewing  the  heat  reaches  the  flesh  through 
water  in  which  it  is  placed,  and  the  chief  difiference  between 
the  two  lies  in  the  amount  of  heat  applied  at  one  time.  The 
choice  to  be  made  between  them  should  depend  on  whether 
the  flesh  only  is  to  be  used,  or  the  poultry  and  also  the 
water  in  which  it  is  cooked.  If  the  flesh  only,  the  bird 
should  be  boiled;  that  is,  plunged  into  water  wliich  is  already 
at  or  near  the  boiling  point  and  allowed  to  stay  at  that  tem- 
perature for  from  ten  to  twcnt}'  minutes.  This  exposure  to 
the  greater  heat  will  cause  the  protein  near  the  surfaces  to 


Food  Value  of  Poultry  Products  241 

harden  and  form  a  sort  of  coating  througli  which  the  juices 
of  the  interior  cannot  so  readilj'  pass.  Later  the  pot  should 
be  set  in  a  cooler  place  and  the  meat  be  left  in  water  below 
the  boiling  point  until  the  desired  changes  have  taken  place 
in  its  inner  parts.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  water  also 
is  to  be  used,  the  bird  should  be  stewed;  that  is,  put  into 
water  while  it  is  still  below  the  boiling  point  and  kept  there 
until  thoroughly  cooked  through,  since  at  a  moderate  tem- 
perature no  impervious  coating  of  coagulated  protein  will 
form,  and  part  of  the  juices,  etc.,  will  escape  from  the  meat 
into  the  water.  If  a  bird  is  cut  up  before  it  is  stewed, 
greater  surface  will  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  hot 
water  and  more  material  will  pass  into  the  water.  Part  of 
the  nutritious  material  in  the  bones,  which  would  otherwise 
be  wasted,  can  be  cooked  out  in  this  way,  adding  to  the 
nutritive  value  of  the  broth.  If  the  stewing  is  kept  up  long 
enough  considerable  material,  especiall}^  the  bodies  which 
give  flavor,  will  pass  into  the  broth,  leaving  the  rather  taste- 
less muscle  fibre.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  these 
fibers  are  the  most  nutritious  parts  of  the  flesh.  Well-made 
broth  is  fairly  rich  in  nutritive  ingredients  and  is  thought  to 
be  more  easily  digested  than  the  original  meat,  and  for  this 
reason  chicken  broth  is  often  given  to  sick  persons  who  need 
their  nourishment  in  return  for  a  small  amount  of  work  of 
digestion.  Furthermore,  the  broth  often  enables  the  invalid 
to  take  with  it  the  more  nutritious  bread,  rice,  or  other  food 
which  would  not  be  relished  otherwise. 

An  old  fowl  can  sometimes  be  made  tender  without  having 
all  its  flavor  stewed  away  by  cooking,  as  in  a  French  bain- 
marie,  where  the  pot  is  kept  in  warm  water  for  a  long  time, 
or  in  a  special  oven  with  walls  which  do  not  conduct  away 
the  heat  readily,  where  it  is  set  for  hours  in  a  warm  air 
chamber. 

In  roasting  and  broiling  poultry  the  heat  reaches  the  meat 
through  the  air  instead  of  through  water.  As  in  boiling,  the 
flesh  is  put  at  once  into  a  high  temperature  which  causes  the 
protein  near  the  surface  to  harden,  thus  partially  preventing 
the  escape  of  the  juices.  If  recourse  is  had  to  basting,  or 
pouring  the  escaped  juices  over  the  hot  meat,  a  coating  is 
formed  over  the  surface  which  aids  in  keeping  in  the  remain- 
der of  the  juices.     The   larger   the   fowl  the   longer  the   time 


242        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

required  for  the  interior  to  become  hot.  With  a  large  fowl 
there  is  not  much  danger  of  drying  up.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  the  bird  is  small  there  is  more  danger  of  this,  and  it 
should  be  cooked  as  quickly  as  possible.  Hence  the  rule  that 
the  smaller  the  bird  the  hotter  the  oven  and  the  shorter  the 
period  of  cooking  should  be. 

When  the  layer  of  meat  over  the  bones  is  very  thin,  as  in 
young  chicks  or  squabs,  broiling  is  preferable  to  roasting. 
Here  very  intense  heat  is  applied  to  one  side  of  the  meat 
until  the  surface  is  coated  over  with  coagulated  protein,  then 
to  the  other  side,  the  interior  being  cooked  at  the  same  time. 
In  this  way  almost  all  the  juices  are  retained  and  the  bird  is 
cooked  through  without  drying  up. 

In  frying  the  meat  is  surrounded  by  fat  instead  of  water 
or  air  and,  like  broiling,  this  process  seems  appropriate  only 
for  thin  pieces  of  meat.  The  hot  fat,  coagulates  the  protein 
on  the  surface,  forming  a  coating  which  keeps  the  juices  in. 
It  should  be  very  hot  when  the  meat  is  put  in,  else  it  will 
soak  into  the  flesh  and  spoil  the  flavor.  Fat,  if  overcooked, 
is  commonly  believed  to  be  quite  indigestible,  and  chicken 
or  other  meat  not  properly  fried  is  probably  less  easily 
digestible  than  that  cooked  in  other  ways. 

The  amount  of  heat  needed  to  soften  the  fibers  and 
develop  the  flavor  of  a  bird,  of  course,  depends  largely  on 
its  age  and  toughness.  Long,  slow  cooking,  as  in  stewing 
or  boiling,  softens  the  fibers  more  thoroughly  than  a  shorter 
exposure  to  intense  heat,  as  in  roasting.  These  methods  are 
therefore  preferable  for  an  old,  tough  bird.  An  old  rule 
given  in  many  cookbooks  is  to  boil  or  stew  a  fowl  "  an  hour 
for  each  year  of  its  age  and  one  for  the  pot."  A  large  bird, 
of  course,  needs  a  longer  exposure  to  the  heat  than  a  small 
one,  and  a  general  rule  for  roasting  chickens  and  turkeys  is 
twenty  minutes  to  the  pound.  Ducks  and  geese,  having 
tougher  fibers,  require  a  longer  time  for  thorough  cooking. 
Some  persons,  however,  prefer  ducks,  especially  wild  ducks, 
rare. 

Composition,  Digestibility,  and  Comparative  Nutri- 
tive Values. 
Eggs — From  a  United   States  government   report  by 
C.  F,  Langworthy,  Ph.  D.,  the  composition,  digestibihty 


Food  Value  of  Poultry  Products  243 

and  comparative  nutritive  values  of  eggs  are  given  as 
follows : 

The  shells  of  hens'  eggs  constitute  about  11  per  cent,  the 
yolk  32  per  cent,  and  the  white  57  per  cent  of  the  total 
weight  of  the  egg.  The  proportion  of  white  and  yolk  varies 
somewhat  with  dififerent  breeds.  According  to  recent  inves- 
tigations the  proportion  of  yolk  is  greatest  in  bantam  eggs, 
and  in  general  is  greater  with  those  breeds  of  poultry  which 
are  best  suited  for  fattening  than  with  other  breeds.  As 
shown  by  tests  made  at  the  New  York  State  Experiment 
Station,  white-shelled  eggs  have  a  somewhat  heavier  shell 
than  brown-shelled  eggs.  The  shell  of  a  duck's  egg  consti- 
tutes about  14  per  cent  of  the  total  weight,  and  that  of  a 
plover  egg  10  per  cent.  The  following  table  shows  the  com- 
position of  hens'  eggs,  raw  and  cooked,  brown  shelled  and 
white  shelled,  and  of  egg  white  and  yolk,  as  well  as  the  com- 
position of  the  egg  (whole  egg  white  and  yolk)  of  the  guinea 
fowl,  duck,  goose,  turkey,  plover,  etc.,  also  evaporated  eggs 
and  egg  substitutes.  For  purpose  of  comparison,  the  com- 
position of  beefsteak  and  several  other  familiar  animal  foods, 
and  of  wheat  flour  and  potatoes,  is  also  added. 

As  is  shown  by  analysis,  eggs  consist  chiefly  of  two  nutri- 
ents— protein  and  fat — in  addition  to  water  and  mineral  mat- 
ter or  ash.  Carbohydrates  are  present  in  small  amounts  and 
are  usually  not  determined  in  analyses.  According  to  recent 
figures,  duck  eggs  contain  0.3  per  cent,  hens'  eggs  0.67  per 
cent,  turkey  and  guinea  eggs  each  0.8  per  cent,  and  goose 
eggs  1.3  per  cent  of  carbohydrates.  Plover  eggs  contain  con- 
siderably more,  the  amount  reported  being  over  2  per  cent. 
In  the  case  of  domestic  poultry  about  one-third  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates occurs  in  the  yolk  and  about  two-thirds  in  the 
white  of  the  egg.  The  protein  or  nitrogenous  matter  is  the 
nutrient  which  is  needed  to  build  and  repair  body  tissue,  as 
already  stated,  while  the  fat  is  useful  for  supplying  energy 
Some  energy  is  also  derived  from  protein.  Mineral  matter 
is  required  by  the  body  for  building  bones  and  other  tissues 
and  for  other  purposes,  but  less  is  definitely  known  concern- 
ing the  kind  and  amount  required  than  in  the  case  of  the 
other  constituents.  In  composition,  eggs  of  all  sorts  resem- 
ble such  animal  foods  as  meat,  milk,  and  cheese,  more  than 


244        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Averagre   Composition   of   JiggB,  Eg-fiT  Products,  and  Otber  Foods. 


^  Ph 


c 

u   01 

Ph  (Ii 

fcfc 

11.9 

9.3 

13.4 

10.5 

12.3 

.2 

15.7 

33.3 

13.2 

12.0 

11.8 

10.8 

11.9 

11.2 

12.1 

12.5 

13.3 

14.5 

11,1 

.03 

16.8 

36.2 

12.9 

12.3 

13.8 

14.4 

11.6 

.02 

17.3 

36.2 

12.2 

9.7 

13.4 

11.2 

11.5 

.03 

17.4 

32.9 

11.9 

9.9 

13.5 

12.0 

11.6 

0.03 

16.7 

31.8 

9.7 

10.6 

10.7 

11.7 

18.1 

11.1 

18.8 

9.8 

12.0 

9.2 

46.9 

36.0 

73.2 

.3 

33,3 

51.6 

73.9 

.3 

2.1 

3.4 

25.9 

33.7 

16.5 

16.1 

18.9 

18.5 

3.3 

4.0 

1.2 

9 

6.2 

1.2 

11.4 

1.0 

1.8 

.1 

2.2 

.1 

3  5  d 
fc  CO 


Hen: 

Whole    egg  as   purchased 
Whole  egg,   edible  portion 

White     

Yolk    

Whole  egg  boiled,   edible 

portion     

White-shelled  eggs  as  pur- 
chased     

Brown-shelled      eggs      as 
purchased     

Duck: 

Wliole  egg  as  purchased 
Whole   egg,    edible   portion 

White     

Yolk     

Goose: 

Whole  egg  as  purchased 
Whole   egg,    edible   portion 

White     

Yolk     

Turkey: 

Whole   egg   as   purchased 
Whole   egg,    edible   portion 

White     

Yolk     

Guinea  fowl: 

Whole   egg   as   purchased 
Whole   egg,    edible   portion 

White     

Yolk     

Plover: 

Whole   egg    as   purchased* 
Whole  egg,  edible  portion* 

Fresh-water   turtle  eggs*    .  . 

Sea-turtle    eggs*     

Salted    duck    eggs*    

Evaporated    hens"    eggs: 

Whole    egg     

White*     

Yolk*    

Egg    substitute     

Pudding    (custard)    powder* 

Cheese   as   purchased    

Sirloin   Steak   as  purchased 

Sirloin    steak,  edible    portion 

Milk    

Oysters    in    shell    as    pur- 
chased     

Oysters,    edible    portion    .  .  . 

Wheat    flour    

Potatoes    as    purchased    .  .  .  . 

Potatoes,    edible    portion .. 


10.7 
10.9 
13.7 


12.8 


65.5 
73.7 
86.2 
49.5 

73.3 


64.8 

60.8 
70.5 
87.0 
45.8 

59.7 
69.5 


63.5 
73.7 
86.7 


60.5 

72.8 
86.6 
49.7 

67.3 
74.4 
65.9 
76.4 


I  6.4 
11.7 
5.9 
11.4 
13.0 
34.2 
54.0 


81.4 
20.6 


7.0 


12.0 
62.6 
78.3 


635 

720 

250 

1,705 

765 


695 

750 

860 

210 

1,840 

760 

865 

215 

1,850 

635 

720 

215 

1,710 

640 

755 

215 

1,655 

625 
695 
778 
738 
590 

2,525 
1,501 
2,794 
1,480 
1,690 
1,950 

985 
1,130 

325 

45 

235 

1,650 

310 


The  above  figures  represent  av 
mens  vary  more  or  less  from   th'^ 


erage  values.     Individual  specl- 
nverage.       *Europoan  analyses. 


Food  Value  of  Poultry  Products  245 

such  vegetable  foods  as  flour  and  potatoes.  As  will  be  seen 
by  the  figures  in  the  above  table,  hens'  eggs  and  those  of 
other  domestic  fowls  do  not  differ  greatly  in  composition. 
Neither  does  the  cooked  egg  vary  materially  in  composition 
from  the  raw,  though  it  varies  markedly  in  texture.  The 
yolk  and  white  differ  greatly  in  composition.  The  yolk  con- 
tains considerable  fat  and  ash,  while  the  white  is  practically 
free  from  fat  and  has  a  very  small  ash  content.  The  white 
contains  somewhat  less  protein  and  about  twice  as  much 
water  as  the  yolk.  As  is  usually  the  case  with  our  familiar 
foods,  the  water  is  not  visible  as  such,  but  is  combined  or 
mingled  with  the  other  constituents,  so  that  the  whole  food 
is  more  or  less  moist,  liquid,  or  juicy.  The  figures  quoted  in 
the  table  show, that  there  is  practically  no  difference  in  com- 
position between  hens'  eggs  with  dark  shells  and  those  with 
white  shells,  although  there  is  a  popular  belief  in  some  local- 
ities that  the  former  are  "  richer."  This  point  was  studied 
by  the  New  York  State  and  California  Experiment  Stations, 
many  analyses  of  the  two  sorts  of  eggs  being  made.  At  the 
California  Experiment  Station  the  brown-shelled  eggs  were 
laid  by  Partridge  Cochins,  Dark  Brahmas,  Black  Langshans, 
Wyandottes,  and  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks.  The  white- 
shelled  eggs  were  laid  by  Brown  Leghorns  and  Buff  Leg- 
horns, White  Minorcas,  and  Black  Minorcas.  The  Michigan 
Experiment  Station  also  analyzed  the  eggs  of  a  number  of 
different  breeds,  though  the  special  object  was  not  to  deter- 
mine whether  there  was  any  relation  between  the  color  of 
the  shell  and  the  composition  of  the  eggs.  However,  no  con- 
stant variation  in  the  eggs  of  the  different  breeds  was 
observed.  These  tests  and  others  like  them  justify  the  state- 
ment that  the  eggs  of  one  breed,  whatever  the  color  of  the 
shells,  are  as  nutritious  as  those  of  anotlier,  provided  thej'' 
are  of  the  same  size  and  the  fowls  are  equally  well  fed. 

As  shown  by  their  composition,  eggs  are  nutritious  food. 
They  are  less  concentrated — i.  e.,  contain  more  water — than 
cheese,  but  are  more  concentrated  than  milk  or  oysters.  In 
water  content  they  do  not  differ  greatly  from  the  average 
value  for  lean  meat.  The  kinds  and  amounts  of  nutrients  in 
eggs  indicate  that  they  may  be  properly  used  in  the  diet 
in  the  same  way  as  most  other  animal  foods,  and  this  belief 
is  confirmed  bj'  the  experience  of  uncounted  generations. 


246        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

The  table  shows  the  nutrients  in  different  kinds  of  eggs 
and  in  a  few  other  foods.  Many  studies  have  been  made  of 
the  chemical  bodies  making  up  the  different  classes  of  nutri- 
ents. Egg  white  is  sometimes  said  to  be  pure  albumen.  In 
reality  it  consists  of  several  albumens,  and,  according  to 
many  observers,  a  little  carbohydrate  material.  The  phos- 
phorus in  the  albumen  of  the  egg  white  is  equivalent  to 
about  0.03  per  cent  phosphoric  acid.  The  chief  ash  constit- 
uent is  sodium  chlorid    (common  salt). 

A  very  extended  investigation  of  the  white  of  egg  was 
made  at  the  Connecticut  State  Experiment  Station.  The 
"  albumen  "  or  protein  of  egg  white  was  found  to  consist  of 
four  bodies — ovalbumen,  conalbumen,  ovomucin  and  ovom- 
ucoid. The  ovalbumen  is  the  chief  constituent  and  makes 
up  the  greater  part  of  the  egg  white.  The  conalbumen  has 
much  the  same  chemical  properties  as  ovalbumen.  Ovom- 
ucin and  ovomucoid  are  glycoproteids,  and  are  present  in 
small  amounts. 

Egg  yolk  contains  a  number  of  different  bodies,  including 
about  IS  per  cent  vitellin  (a  proteid) ;  20  per  cent  palmatin, 
stearin,  and  olein  (the  fatty  constituents,  and  0.5  per  cent 
coloring  matter,  besides  some  lecithin  (a  fat-like  body  con- 
taining phosphorus),  nuclein,  etc.  The  yellow  coloring  mat- 
ter in  egg  yolk  has  been  separated  and  studied  somewhat, 
and  though  its  exact  character  is  not  yet  known,  it  is 
related  to  the  yellow  coloring  matter  of  animal  origin  called 
lutein.  The  total  phosphorus  in  the  yolk  is  equivalent  to  a 
little  over  1  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid.  Besides  phos- 
phorus, the  yolk  contains  such  chemical  elements  as  calcium, 
magnesium,  potassium,  and  iron  in  the  form  of  salts  and 
other  chemical  compounds.  The  protein  of  egg  yolk  was 
studied  extensively  at  the  Connecticut  State  Experiment 
Station.  According  to  these  investigations  it  contains  a  large 
amount  of  proteid  matter  combined  with  lecithin.  The  name 
lecithin-nucleo  vitellin  is  proposed  for  this  compound,  which 
behaves  like  a  globulin.  It  is  soluble  in  a  solution  of  salt. 
As  prepared  in  the  laboratory,  the  lecithin-nucleo-vitellin 
contained  from  IS  to  30  per  cent  lecithin.  A  lecithin-free 
body  insoluble  in  salt  solution  was  also  isolated.  This  was 
called  nucleo-vitellin. 

The  lecithin  present  in  egg  yolk  and  other  food  materials 


Food  Value  of  Poultry  Products  247 

has  come  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  very  important  food 
constituents,  as,  in  addition  to  other  elements,  it  furnishes 
the  body  with  phosphorus  in  a  form  in  which  it  ma}^  be 
readily  assimilated.  Eggs  have  always  been  recognized  as 
a  valuable  food  in  invalid  dietetics.  The  investigations  which 
have  been  made  with  lecithin  furnish  additional  proof  of  the 
truth  of  this  belief,  and  egg  yolks  in  abundance  are  often 
prescribed  where  it  is  desirable  to  supply  a  very  nutritious 
and  easily  assimilated  diet. 

One  of  the  constituents  of  egg  albumen  is  sulphur.  The 
dark  stain  made  by  eggs  on  silver  is  commonly  and  doubt- 
less correctly  attributed  to  the  formation  of  silver  sulphid. 
The  albumens  are  readily  decomposed  with  the  liberation  of 
hydrogen  sulphid.  The  bad  odor  of  rotten  eggs  is  due  largely 
to  the  presence  of  this  gas  and  phosphureted  hydrogen, 
which  is  also  formed.  The  shell  of  the  egg  is  porous,  and 
the  micro-organisms  which  cause  the  egg  to  ferment — i.  e., 
to  rot  or  spoil — gain  access  to  the  egg  through  the  minute 
openings.  Like  the  mold  spores,  these  micro-organisms  are 
widely  distributed. 

Composition  of  shell — In  the  table  no  figures  are  given  for 
the  composition  of  the  eggshell,  which,  of  course,  has  no 
food  value.  The  shell  of  the  hen's  egg  is  made  up  vcy 
largely  of  mineral  matter,  containing  93.7  per  cent  calcium 
carbonate,  1.3  per  cent  magnesium  carbonate,  0.8  per  cent 
calcium  phosphate,  and  4.2  per  cent  of  organic  matter.  The 
shells  of  goose  eggs,  on  an  average,  have  the  following  per- 
centage composition:  calcium  carbonate,  95.3;  magnesium 
carbonate,  0.7;  calcium  phosphate,  0.5,  and  organic  matter, 
3.5.  The  shells  of  ducks'  eggs  contain  94.4  per  cent  calcium 
carbonate,  0.5  per  cent  magnesium  carbonate,  0.8  per  cent 
calcium  phosphate,  and  4.3  per  cenf  organic  matter.  The 
shells  of  other  eggs  are  doubtless  of  much  the  same  com- 
position. 

Raw  eggs  or  eggs  only  slightl}^  cooked  are  commonly  said 
to  be  very  digestible,  the  idea  being  obviously  that  they 
digest  readily,  without  giving  rise  to  pain  or  other  physical 
discomfort.  The  term  digestibility  has  another  meaning,  and 
one  which  is  commonly  intended  when  it  is  used  in  the 
discussion  of  food  values.  This  refers  to  the  thorouglmess 
of  digestion — that  is,  to  the  total  amount  of  material  which 


248        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

any  food  gives  up  to  the  body  in  its  passage  through  the 
digestive  tract.  Since  only  soluble  or  possibly  emulsified 
matter  can  pass  through  the  walls  of  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines and  be  taken  up  into  the  circulation  to  nourish  the 
body,  it  follows  that  only  material  which  is  soluble  or  is  ren- 
dered soluble  by  the  action  of  pepsin,  trypsin,  and  other 
ferments  in  the  digestive  juices,  is  truly  digestible.  The 
original  condition  of  food,  the  method  of  cooking,  and  the 
amount  eaten  at  a  given  time,  are  among  the  factors  which 
determine  the  quantity  of  any  given  material  which  can  be 
digested. 

Statements  are  frequently  made  with  regard  to  the  length 
of  time  required  to  digest  different  foods.  Many  of  these  are 
doubtless  far  from  accurate,  as  the  subject  is  not  easy  to 
study.  By  methods  of  artificial  digestion  the  length  of  time 
required  to  render  different  foods  soluble  has  been  fre- 
quently tested.  It  is  possible  to  use  in  the  experiments  the 
same  digestive  ferments  which  occur  in  the  body  and  to 
approximate  body  temperature,  etc.,  but  it  is  quite  certain 
that  all  the  conditions  of  digestibility  in  the  body  cannot  be 
reproduced  in  the  laboratory.  The  results  obtained  are  inter- 
esting and  often  valuable,  but  it  is  worthy  of  note  that 
careful  investigators  are  much  slower  to  make  sweeping 
deductions  from  them  than  are  popular  writers  on  the  sub- 
ject. 

More  than  fifty  years  ago  Dr.  Beaumont,  a  United  States 
Army  surgeon,  had  an  excellent  opportunity  for  studying 
digestibility  in  the  stomach.  A  healthy  young  man  was  arci- 
dently  wounded  in  the  stomach  by  the  discharge  of  a  musket. 
In  time  the  large  wound  healed,  leaving  a  permanent  open- 
ing into  the  stomach.  This  was  ordinarily  closed  by  a  valv- 
ular flap  made  by  a  fold  of  the  stomach  lining,  which  could 
be  easily  pushed  aside  and  the  interior  of  the  stotnach  exam- 
ined or  the  stomach  contents  removed  as  desired.  Strange 
as  it  may  seem,  this  could  be  done  without  giving  the  sub- 
ject pain  or  annoyance,  nor  was  his  general  health  abnormal 
after  the  wound  had  healed  in  this  curious  way.  For  many 
years  after  the  time  of  the  accident  (1822")  the  man  was 
under  Dr.  Beaumont's  care  and  observation.  Very  many 
experiments  were  made  on  the  length  of  time  required  by 
different  foods  for  digestion  in  the  stomach,  or  "  chymifica- 


Food  Value  of  Poultry  Products  249 

tion."  ^lany  artificial  digestion  experiments  were  also  made, 
using  gastric  juice  removed  from  the  man's  stomach. 
Although  these  investigations  were  carried  on  long  before 
the  theories  and  methods  of  physiological  chemistry  now 
accepted  were  known,  so  much  care  was  taken  in  making  the 
experiments,  and  in  recording  the  experimental  data,  that  the 
work  has  never  ceased  to  be  of  great -value  as  well  as  mter- 
est.  However,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  Dr.  Beaumc>nt 
studied  only  digestion  in  the  stomach;  his  work  throws  no 
light  on  digestion  in  the  intestines.  This  is  of  especial 
importance  in  the  case  of  starchy  foods,  as  the  digestion  of 
starch,  which  is  begun  by  the  saliva,  ceases  in  the  stomach 
but  is  resumed  in  the  intestines.  The  experiments  reported 
include  among  others  tests  of  the  length  of  time  required  to 
digest  eggs,  hard  and  soft  boiled,  fried,  roasted,  and  raw. 
The  raw  eggs  were  sometimes  whipped  and  sometimes  not. 
In  all  the  tests  fresh  eggs  were  used.  Hard-boiled  and  fried 
eggs  each  required  3^  hours  for  digestion  in  the  stomach, 
i.  e.,  for  the  formation  of  chyme;  soft-boiled  eggs  required 
3  hours;  roasted  eggs,  2;4  hours;  raw  eggs,  not  wh'pped, 
2  hours;  and  raw  eggs,  whipped,  l]^  hours.  When  tested  by 
the  methods  of  artificial  digestion  followed  by  Dr.  Beau- 
mont, which  approximated  bodily  conditions  as  closely  as  he 
was  able  to  make  them,  the  hard-boiled  eggs  required  8 
hours  for  digestion;  soft-boiled  eggs,  616  hours;  raw  eggs, 
not  whipped,  4^^  hours;  and  raw  eggs,  whipped,  4  hours. 
The  two  methods  gave  results  which  agree  in  the  relative 
length  of  time  required  for  the  digestibility  of  the  dififerent 
samples,  though  not  in  the  actual  time  required.  Similar 
results  were  obtained  by  the  two  methods  with  the  greater 
part  of  the  large  number  of  foods  studied.  One  of  Dr.  Beau- 
mont's general  deductions  was  that  most  of  the  common 
foods  required  from  2  to  4  hours  to  digest  in  the  stomach. 
He  says  further: 

The  time  required  for  the  digestion  of  food  is  various, 
depending  upon  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  food,  state  of 
the  stomach,  etc.,  but  the  time  ordinarily  required  for  the 
disposal  of  a  moderate  meal  of  the  fibrous  parts  of  meat, 
with  bread,  etc.,  is  from  3  to  3j^  hours. 

As  regards  the  time  required  for  digestion  in  the  stomach, 
it  will  be  seen  that  in  this  investigation  eggs  compare  favor- 


250        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

ably  with  other  common  foods.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
digestion  continues  in  the  intestine,  and  that  no  data  are 
furnislied  by  these  experiments  for  judging  of  this  factor. 
This  is  an  important  matter,  as  food  material  which  escapes 
digestion  in  the  stomach  may  be  thoroughly  digested  later 
in  the  intestine.  This  fact  seems  to  have  been  often  over- 
looked in  the  discussion  of  Dr.  Beaumont's  work. 

Some  German  investigations  which  have  to  do  with  the 
length  of  time  different  foods  remain  in  the  stomach  have 
also  shown  that  two  eggs  eaten  raw,  poached,  or  in  the  form 
of  an  omelet,  leave  the  stomach  in  two  to  three  hours,  being 
included  in  the  same  class  as  milk,  oysters,  white  bread,  etc. 
The  ordinary  kinds  of  fresh  meat  leave  the  stomach  in  three 
to  four  hours,  and  some  smoked  meats  and  salt  fish  in  four 
to  five  hours.  Another  investigator,  who  has  divided  com- 
mon foods  into  four  classes  according  to  the  ease  with  which 
they  are  digested,  includes  raw  or  soft-cooked  eggs  in  the 
most  digestible  class,  along  with  beef  tea,  milk,  etc.  Few 
investigations  have  been  reported  regarding  the  comparative 
digestibility  of  the  different  parts  of  the  egg.  On  the  basis 
of  a  number  of  experiments,  Stern  concludes  that  raw  or 
half-raw  egg  yolk  is  very  readily  digested.  He  found  that 
two  to  four  raw  yolks  leave  the  stomach  in  seventy  to  one 
hundred  minutes,  and  that  one  or  two  yolks  taken  in  a  cup 
of  hot  cofifee  with  some  sugar  and  milk  leave  the  stomach 
in  sixty  to  seventy  minutes. 

Among  later  experiments  on  the  digestibility  of  eggs  by 
artificial  methods,  the  work  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment 
Station  may  be  cited.  The  object  was  to  study  the  thor- 
oughness as  well  as  the  ease  of  digestion.  Five  experiments 
were  made  by  means  of  a  pepsin  solution  with  eggs  cooked 
under  dififerent  conditions.  Eggs  were  cooked  for  3  minutes 
in  water  at  212°  F.,  giving  a  "  soft-boiled  "  egg,  and  for  5 
minutes  and  20  minutes  at  the  same  temperature.  The  egg 
boiled  3  minutes  and  digested  for  5  hours  in  pepsin  solu- 
tion, compared  with  one  boiled  20  minutes  and  treated  in 
the  same  way,  showed  8.3  per  cent  undigested  protein  in  the 
former,  against  4.1  per  cent  undigested  protein  in  the  latter. 
Under  similar  treatment  the'egg  boiled  5  minutes  gave  3.9 
per  cent  undigested  protein.  In  all  cases  the  eggs  was  quite 
thoroughly  digested.     Another  trial  was  then  made  in  which 


Food  Value  of  Poultry  Products  251 

the  eggs  were  cooked  for  periods  of  5  and  10  minutes  in 
water  at  180°  F. — that  is,  the  albumen  was  coagulated  at 
a  lower  temperature  than  that  of  boiling  water.  In  both  of 
these  cases  the  protein  was  entirely  digested  in  5  hours. 
These  results  would  indicate  that  while  the  time  and  the 
temperature  of  cooking  have  some  effect  upon  the  rate  of 
digestion,  they  do  not  very  materially  affect  the  total  digesti- 
bility. 

As  regards  the  general  deduction  that  eggs  cooked  for  dif- 
ferent lengths  of  time  vary  somewhat  in  the  length  of  time 
for  digestion  under  the  experimental  conditions,  the  results 
agree  quite  closely  with  those  obtained  by  Dr.  Beaumont. 

Experiments  have  also  been  made  with  man  to  learn  how 
thoroughly  eggs  are  digested.  In  such  tests  it  is  usual  to 
analyze  the  food  and  the  feces,  the  latter  being  assumed  to 
consist  principally  of  undigested  food.  Deducting  the 
amount  of  the  different  nutrients  in  the  feces  from  the  total 
amount  consumed,  shows  how  much  of  each  nutrient  was 
digested.  Such  an  experiment  was  made  at  the  Minnesota 
Experiment  Station  with  a  healthy  man.  A  very  consider- 
able portion  of  the  nitrogenous  material  and  fat  of  the 
ration  was  furnished  by  eggs,  the  other  foods  eaten  being 
potatoes,  milk,  and  cream.  About  90  per  cent  of  the  total 
nitrogenous  material  and  over  90  per  cent  of  the  fat  con- 
sumed were  digested.  In  experiments  at  the  University  of 
Tennessee  with  healthy  men  on  a  diet  of  bread,  milk,  and 
eggs,  from  9'3  to  95  per  cent  of  both  the  protein  and  fat 
were  digested.  The  conclusion  therefore  seems  warranted 
that,  as  shown  by  composition  and  digestibility,  eggs  possess 
the  high  nutritive  properties  which  are  popularly  assigned 
to  them. 

A  German  investigator,  Rubner,  some  years  ago  tested  the 
digestibility  of  hard-boiled  eggs  with  a  healthy  man.  No 
other  food  was  eaten  with  the  eggs.  It  was  found  that  95 
per  cent  of  the  total  dry  matter  and  97  per  cent  of  the  pro- 
tein were  digested.  The  fat  was  also  very  thoroughly  assim- 
ilated. The  percentage  of  total  dry  matter  and  protein 
digested  was  about  the  same  as  was  found  in  similar  exper- 
iments in  which  meat  only  was  eaten,  while  the  percentage 
of  fat  digested  was  larger.  Discussing  these  tests,  Rubner 
says   in   effect: 


252        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

From  the  fact  that  eggs  are  as  completely  digested  as 
meat,  it  does  not  follow  that  they  are  digested  in  the  same 
time,  or  that  hard-boiled  eggs  do  not  produce  more  dis- 
turbance in  the  digestive  organs.  It  is  highly  probable  that 
there  is  no  difference  in  the  thoroughness  of  digestion  of 
hard-boiled  and  soft-boiled  eggs. 

Jorissenne,  discussing  the  digestibility  of  eggs  with  refer- 
ence to  some  recent  European  work  on  the  subject,  states 
that  he  regards  the  yolk  of  raw,  soft-boiled,  and  hard-boiled 
eggs  as  equally  digestible.  The  white  of  soft-boiled  eggs 
being  semiliquid,  offers  little  more  resistence  to  the  digestive 
juices  than  raw  white.  The  white  of  a  hard-boiled  egg  is 
not  generally  very  thoroughly  masticated.  Unless  finely 
divided,  it  ofifers  more  resistance  to  the  digestive  juices  than 
the  fluid  or  semifluid  white,  and  undigested  particles  may 
remain  in  the  digestive  tract  many  days  and  decompose. 
From  this  deduction  it  is  obvious  that  thorough  mastication 
is  a  matter  of  importance.  Provided  mastication  is  thor- 
ough, marked  dififerences  in  the  completeness  of  digestion 
of  the  three  sorts  of  eggs,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer  cited, 
will  not  be  found. 

Perhaps  the  most  extended  study  of  the  digestibility  of 
eggs  on  record  was  carried  on  at  St.  Petersburg  by  Tikh- 
vinski.  Two  experiments,  each  divided  into  two  periods  of 
seven  days,  were  made  with  a  healthy  man.  In  the  first 
period  of  the  first  experiment,  the  diet  consisted  of  hard- 
boiled  eggs,  bread,  and  meat;  in  the  second,  of  soft-boiled 
eggs  with  bread  and  meat.  The  second  experiment  was 
made  under  similar  conditions,  except  that  the  soft-boiled 
eggs  were  used  in  the  first  period  and  the  hard-boiled  in  the 
second.  The  eggs  furnished  about  one-fifth  of  the  total  pro- 
tein and  two-thirds  of  the  total  fat  of  the  diet.  Considering 
the  average  results  of  the  whole  investigation  or  those  of 
each  experiment,  the  rations  containing  the  eggs  cooked  in 
the  two  ways  proved  equally  digestible,  90  to  91  per  cent  of 
the  protein  and  95  per  cent  of  the  fat  consumed  being 
retained  in  the  body.  As  the  only  factor  in  the  experiments 
wliich  varied  was  the  time  of  cooking  the  eggs,  the  deduc- 
tion seems  warranted  that  the  hard  and  soft  boiled  were 
equally  digestible. 

In  connection  with  the  nutrition  investigations  of  this 
department,  the  average  coefficients  of  digestibility  have  been 


Food  Value  of  Poultry  Products  253 

deduced  for  different  kinds  of  food  materials,  that  for  the 
protein  of  eggs  being  97  per  cent  and  for  the  fat  SIS  per  cent. 

From  all  the  evidence  it  seems  fair  to  conclude  that  eggs 
are  quite  thoroughly  digested  and  that  the  length  of  time 
of  cooking  has  less  effect  upon  this  factor  than  upon  the 
time  required  for  digestion.  In  a  healthy  man  the  latter 
consideration  is  probably  not  a  matter  of  much  importance. 
In  the  diet  of  sick  persons  and  invalids  it  may  be  more 
important.  Diet  in  such  cases,  however,  is  a  matter  for  the 
attention  of  skilled  physicians. 

In  some  of  the  experiments  referred  to  above  the  eggs 
were  used  alone;  in  others,  as  a  part  of  a  more  or  less  simple 
mixed  diet.  Tlie  effect  of  one  food  upon  the  digestibility  of 
another  is  a  matter  concerning  which  little  is  definitely 
known.  It  is  possible  that  when  two  foods  are  eaten 
together  the  digestibility  of  either  or  both  is  (1)  unchanged, 
(2)  increased,  or  (3)  diminished. 

Apparently  no  experiments  have  been  made  in  which  the 
problem  was  studied  with  special  reference  to  eggs  combined 
with  other  foods.  However,  artificial  digestion  experiments 
were  made  by  Fraser  on  the  effect  of  beverages  on  the 
digestibility  of  a  number  of  foods  including  raw  and  cooked 
egg  albumen,  which  led  to  the  deduction  that  tea,  coffee,  and 
cocoa  retarded  somewhat  the  digestibility  of  the  nitrogenous 
constituents  of  eggs,  although  the  effect  was  less  marked 
with  coffee  than  with  the  other  beverages.  Water  did  not 
have  this  effect.  Though  interesting  in  themselves,  too  wide 
application  should  not  be  made  of  the  results  of  such  tests, 
for  even  if  the  beverages  retarded  digestibility  somewhat,  it 
does  not  necessarily  follow  that  this  effect  was  harmful,  or 
that  the  thoroughness  of  digestion  was  altered. 

The  following'  paragraph  is  also  interesting : 

For  convenience,    eggs   may   be   divided   into   two   groups: 

(1)  Those  from  which  the  young  are  hatched  full  fledged 
and  ready  in   a  great   measure   to   care   for   themselves,   and 

(2)  those  from  which  the  young  are  hatched  unfledged  and 
entirely  dependent  upon  the  parents  for  some  time.  Domes- 
tic poultry  eggs  are  familiar  examples  of  the  first  group; 
robins  and  sparrows,  of  the  second.  The  eggs  of  the  two 
classes  differ  materially  in  composition.  It  seems  evident 
that  more  nutritive  material  is  needed  proportionally  in  the 


Proportions  of  Dii;;cstiblc  A^iitricnts  and  Fuel  J'aluc  Per 
Pound  in  Poultry. 


Kind  of  Food  Material. 


Digestible 
Nutrients. 


Capon,    as    purchased 

Capon,    edible   portion 

Capon,     flesli,*     

Capon,    giblets,     

Chicken,   as   purchased 

Chicken,    edible    portion,    

Chicken,    flesh,*     

Chicken,    dark    meat 

Chicken,    light    meat 

Chicken,     giblets 

Chicken,    broiler,    as   purchased, 
Chicken,    broiler,    edible    portion. 

Chicken,    broiler,    flesh,*     

Chicken,    broiler,    giblets,    

Duck,    as    purchased 

Duck,    edible    portion,     

Duck,  flesh,*  not  including  breast 

Duck,    breast 

Duck,    giblets,     

Duckling,    as    purchased | 

Duckling,    edible   portion,    .  . 

Duckling,    flesh,*     

Duckling,     giblets,     

Fowl,    as    purchased 

Fowl,    edible    portion 

Fowl,    flesh,*     

Fowl,    giblets,     

Goose,    as    purchased 

Goose,    edible   portion,    

Goose,     flesh,*     

Goose,     giblets 

Green   goose',   as  purcliased. 
Green   goose,   edible   portion. 

Green    goose,    flesh,*     

Green   goose,   giblets,    

Guinea    hen,    as    purchased, 
Guinea  hen,   edible   portion, 

Guinea    hen,    flesh,*     

Guinea    hen,    giblets 

Pheasant,    as    purchased.     .  . 
Pheasant,    edible   portion,    .  . 

Pheasant,    flesh,*    

Pheasant,    giblets 

Pigeon,    as    purchased 

Pigeon,    edible    portion 

Pigeon,    flesh,*     


%  1     Vc 

'/o        '/c   1 

17.5 

46.8 

1.6 

17.2 

16.6 

56.7 

2.0 

20.9 

20.1 

.4.S.8 

2.0 

21.0 

21.(1 

63. :< 

1.6 

19.9 

13.9 

18.8  55.5 

1.1 

17.3 

6.8 

68.4 

1.4 

21.2 

8,5 

66.9 

1.5 

21.9 

9.6 

70.1 

1.3 

20.2 

7.8 

70.3 

1.4 

21.2 

7.0 

71.0 

1.2 

19.2 

6.1 

25.5 

h\A> 

1.1 

14.9 

6.0 

69.  V 

1,4 

20.0 

8,1 

69.2 

1.3 

20.4 

8.3 

72.8 

2.3 

18.1 

5.8 

I.S.9 

51,4 

1  6 

14  9 

15  2 

61.1 

1.8 

17.8 

18.0 

55.5 

2.0 

16.9 

24.8 

73.9 

1.1 

21.6 

2.2 

73.2 

1.2 

17.3 

4.8 

16.2143.3 

1  9 

11  6 

26  6 

51,7 

2.4 

13,9 

31,7 

48,3 

2.4 

13.1 

36.0 

70.2 

1.4 

18.3     7.7( 

lirt.l 

49  9 

1.4 

16,6 

15,4 

59  5 

1  9 

19  8 

18  2 

58,9 

1,9 

19,9 

18.9 

64.7 

1.6 

18.1 

13.0 

11.1 

48.0 

1.9 

14.4 

24.2 

54.0 

2.2 

16.1 

27.3 

51  8 

2  3 

15,7 

29  9 

70,0 

1,4 

19  5 

7.8 

!>.fi 

43.6 

2  2 

13.3 

31.0 

48.2 

2.5 

14.6 

34.2 

45.7 

2.6 

13.9 

37.4 

68,7 

1,4 

21  6 

6  9 

16.4 

57,7 

1.4 

18.8 

5.1 

169.1 

1,3 

22  4 

6.2 

168.9 

1.3 

22.7 

6.2 

169.9 

13 

20,2 

6.7 

12.0161.5 

1.0 

20.9 

4.0 

169.9 

1.2 

23.7 

4.6' 

170.0 

1.2 

24.0 

4.4 

168.9 

1  4 

19  5 

6.8 

13.6155.2 

1.4 

19.1 

9.0 

164.0 

1.7 

22.1 

10.4 

63.2 

1.6 

22.2 

11.5 

0.8 
1.0 
0.8 
0.8 
0.8 
1.3 
0.6 
0.7 
0.6 
1.1 
0.8 
1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
0.8 
0.8 
0.8 
!  1.2 
1.0 

1.1 
1.1 


♦Not  including  giblets. 


254 


Kind  of  Food  Material. 


y 

1 

*:; 

Digestible 

' 

Nutrients. 

+j 

C 

0) 

^ 

m 

•;^ 

bs 

-d 

■n 

3 

c 

■3 

<t-i 

i 

0 

Si 

S 

£ 

^ 

0! 

<! 

Pigeon,    giblets,    

Quail,    as    purchased 

Quail,    edible    portion 

Quail,    flesh,*    

Quail,    giblets,     

Russian   pheasant,  as    purchased, 
Rus.sian    pheasant,  edible  portion 

Russian    pheasant,    flesh,*     

Russian    pheasant,    giblets 

Squab,    as    purchased 

Squab,    edible    portion 

Squab,     flesh,*     

Squab,     giblets 

Turkey,    as    purchased 


%  I  7c  \   %  I 


Turkey, 
Turkey, 
Turkey, 
Turkey, 
Turkey, 
Turkey. 


edible    portion,     

flesh,*     

dark   meat 

light    meat 

giblets 

dark   meat   cooked 

Turkey,   light  meat  cooked 

Potted    Chicken 

Potted    Chicken 

Chicken    soup 

Chicken    soup,     

Chicken    soup 

Chicken    gumbo 

Boned    chicken,     

Terrine  de   Foie  Gras 

Potted     turkey,     

Potted    turkey 

Smoked  goose  breast  with  skin 
and    fat 

Smoked   goose  breast,   skin   and 
fat  removed  from  outside,    . 

Beef,   rib?,   as   purchased 

Beef,  shoulder  and  clod,  as  pur- 
chased  

Mutton,    leg,    as   purchased 

Pork,   loin  chops,   as  purchased. 

Pork,   salt.   fat.   as  purchased,    .  . 

Cod, fresh,  dressed,  as   purchased, 

Cod.    salt,    as    purchased 

Eggs,    

Milk 

Butter 

Wheat  flour,  patent  process,    .  .  . 

Bread,   white,    wheat 

Beans,  white,  dried,  as  purchased, 

Potatoes,    as    purchased 

Apples,    as    purchased. 


14.1|( 


Vo  I    %  I   Ca 


681 

1  6 

21  5 

4.9 

2.2 

1.7 

648 

.^9.0 

1.8 

21.6 

5.8 

1.1 

64V 

ti.5.9 

1.4 

24.8 

6.5 

1.2 

727 

««,:h 

1,5 

24.6 

6.6 

1.1 

785 

63.0 

1.6 

21.2 

5.9 

6.6 

1.7 

767 

61.111.0 

20.9 

1.8 

0.91    465 

71.1J1.1 

24.8 

1.11    544 

70.6 

1.2 

24.9 

2  2 

l.li    555 

74.4 

1.0 

20.6 

2.1 

0.9 

1.01    488 

49  0 

1,7 

15,2 

17.7 

1.011030 

5S.0 

2.1 

18.0 

21.0 

1.1 

1221 

,56.6 

2.1 

17.9 

22  6 

1.1 

1286 

69.S 

1.5 

19.2 

6.8 

1.2 

1.5 

666 

49.2 

1.2  18.8 

15.4 

0.8 

1000 

57.4 

1.9 

21.5 

18.0 

0.9 

1159 

57.7 

1.9 

22.2 

17.8 

0.9 

1180 

58.2 

2.1 

19.4 

28.8 

0.8 

1366 

62.1 

1.7 

25.0 

10.7 

1.0 

917 

56.7 

2.0 

17.2 

22.8 

0.9 

0.9 

1278 

58. 7 

1.9 

8S.0 

4.1 

1.7 

880 

5S.5 

1.6133.6 

4.7 

1.4 

64,4 

1.9 

15  8 

18  8 

8  8 

1  8 

981 

47.7 

2.9 

22.2 

25.2 

2.0 

1518 

S5.0 

0.8 

2.5 

8.9 

6.4 

1.4 

829 

XI  8 

1  1 

2  9 

5  5 

7  6 

1  6 

427 

95.0 

0.8 

2,9 

1.1 

0.7 

77 

91.0 

0.6 

2.8 

0.2 

4.7 

1.2 

188 

57.6 

1.6 

26.9 

12.2 

1.7 

1058 

41.8 

8.0 

86.8 

4.2 

2.0 

1884 

64.9 

2.1 

11.9 

15.0 

3.7 

2.4 

942 

47.0  3.0|21.3|26.7| 


1.2 

1.4 

1.8 

5.4 

0.5 

.,5.1 

5|l.l 

010.5 

014.9 

0  3.4 

3  2.9 

617.9 

611.2 

3  1.2 


:« 

36.8 

1 
4.1 

25  8 

4,2 

6  0 

13.5 

20.0 

.5 

15.9 

9.8 

.7 

14  6 

14  0 

.6 

130 

23.0 

,6 

1.8 

81.9 

2  9 

10.8 

.2 

.6 

15.5 

.4 

18.9 

12.7 

8  8 

8.2 

8.8 

5.0 

.5 

1.0 

80.8 

2.8 

9.7 

9 

78  6 

.4 

7.8 

1.2 

52  0 

.81 

17.5 

1.6 

57.8 

2  6| 

1.5 

,1 

14  0 

fi| 

.3 

.3 

9.7 

.2 

685 
1135 

715 

890 

1245 

3555 

220 

325 

635 

310 

3410 

1635 

1200 

1520 

I    695 

I    190 


*Not  including  giblets. 


255 


256        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

first  case  than  in  the  second,  since  the  growth  is  continued 
in  the  egg  until  the  bird  reaches  a  more  advanced  stage  of 
development.  The  quite  marked  differences  in  composition 
of  the  two  sorts  of  eggs  have  been  shown  by  chemical 
studies. 

Poultry  Flesh — A  similar  discussion  relative  to  the 
flesh  of  various  kinds  of  poultry  follows  from  the  pen  of 
R.  D.  Milner,  as  found  in  the  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin  from  Storrs,  Connecticut."    See  tables : 

The  figures  given  in  the  report  referred  to  show  the  per- 
centages of  the  different  ingredients  as  found  by  analysis. 
In  the  table  above  the  values  have  been  computed  so  as  to 
show  the  proportions  of  digestible  nutrients  in  poultry;  and 
for  the  sake  of  comparison  and  discussion  of  relative  values, 
corresponding  figures  are  given  for  a  number  of  common 
food  materials   other  than   poultry. 

•  »^  In  order  to  get  at  the  real  meaning  of  these  figures,  a  few 
of  the  main  principles  of  food  and  its  uses  in  the  human  body 
must  be  borne  in  mind.  Food  is  taken  into  the  body  to  build 
new  tissues,  fluids,  etc.,  repair  old  or  injured  ones,  and  to 
furnish  heat  to  keep  the  body  warm  and  energy  for  all  mus- 
cular work,  for  blood  circulation  and  for  breathing  as  well 
as  for  walking  or  any  other  activity. 

Not  all  the  material  in  food  as  it  is  bought,  or  even  in 
food  ready  to  eat,  is  useful  to  the  body.  ]\Iost  foods  as  pur- 
chased contain  more  or  less  refuse,  or  parts  which  are  quite 
useless  as  nourishment.  The  skin  and  seeds  of  vegetables, 
the  shells  of  eggs  and  the  bones  of  fish  and  meat  are  exam- 
ples of  refuse.  Moreover,  there  is  more  or  less  water  in  all 
food  materials,  and  though  water  is  necessary  to  the  well- 
being  of  the  body,  that  contained  in  ordinary  solid  foods  is 
not  counted  as  added  to  the  real  nutritive  value  of  the  food. 

Coming  to  the  actual  nutrients  of  the  food,  we  find  that 
the  materials  which  are  needed  to  build  up  the  body  are 
the  nitrogenous  substances  called  protein  and  small  quan- 
tities of  mineral  matters.  The  heat  and  energy  are  ordi- 
narily supplied  mainly  by  fats  and  by  carbohydrates,  of  which 
latter  starches  and  sugars  are  the  main  representatives  in 
our  food,  although   protein  may  also  be  thus  utilized.     The 


Food  Value  of  Poultry  Products  257 

protein  is  found  in  casein  of  milk,  white  of  egg,  gluten  of 
wheat,  etc.,  and  also  in  the  lean  of  meat.  Fats  are  of  course 
easily  recognizable  in  meats  and  butter,  and  occur  more  or 
less  in  vegetable  foods,  as  the  oil  of  corn  or  wheat,  olive 
oil,  etc.  The  principal  sources  of  carbohydrates  are  the 
starches  of  cereals,  vegetables  and  fruits,  and  sugars, 
whether  separated  or  in  honey  and  vegetable  foods.  Min- 
eral matters  are  found  in  small  quantities  in  all  our  common 
foods.  Meats  are  especially  important  in  our  diet  as  sources 
of  the  tissue-building  protein,  but  they  also  have  a  great 
value  for  the  heat  and  energy  they  yield  to  the  body,  espe- 
cially through  the  fat.  The  amount  of  energy  or  heat  which 
a  given  amount  and  kind  of  food  will  furnish  to  the  body  is 
called  its  fuel  value,  and  is  expressed  by  calories,  one  calorie 
representing  the  energy  necessary  to  lift  1  ton  1.54  feet  or  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  1  pound  of  water  4°  F.  The  fuel 
value  of  fats  is  more  than  twice  as  great  as  that  of  protein 
or  carbohydrates,  and  hence  materials  rich  in  fat  have  a 
relatively  high  fuel  value. 

Of  course  the  body  is  not  nourished  by  what  is  actually 
eaten,  but  what  is  actually  digested,  that  is  by  that  part  of 
all  the  food  eaten  which  the  digestive  organs  are  able  to 
change  into  such  form  that  it  can  be  taken  into  the  circula- 
tion and  used  to  build  tissues  or  supply  heat  and  energy. 
The  amount  thus  made  useful  we  speak  of  as  the  digestible 
portion.  It  diflfers  somewhat  with  individuals,  with  the  mode 
of  cooking,  etc.,  but  in  general  it  is  found  that  about  97  per 
cent,  of  the  total  protein  in  meats  and  95  per  cent,  of  the 
total  fat  is  digested  by  the  average  healthy  person,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  digestibility  of  animal  protein  is  97  per 
cent.,  and  of  fats  95  per  cent. 

In  considering  the  true  nutritive  value  of  any  food,  then, 
we  must  know  in  the  first  place  how  much  refuse  and  water 
it  contains.  The  more  of  these  we  find  present,  the  smaller 
will  be  the  proportion  of  nutrients;  and  the  greater  the  pro- 
portion of  fats  and  carbohydrates,  the  higher  will  be  the 
fuel  value. 

In  discussing  the  value  of  poultry  as  food  it  may  be  inter- 
esting to  notice  how  the  different  kinds  of  meats,  taken  as 
a  class,  compare  in  nutritive  value  with  the  other  classes  of 
foods,   such   as  milk.  eggs,  vegetables,  fruits,   cereals,  bread. 


258        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

etc.  The  composition  of  dififerent  meats  and  other  foods  is 
given  at  the  bottom  of  the  table.  It  is  rather  hard  to  make 
very  general  comparisons,  as  the  different  vegetable  foods 
vary  so  greatly  in  their  composition;  but  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  meats,  as  a  rule,  have  a  smaller  amount  of  indigestible 
nutrients,  more  protein  and  fat,  and  practically  no  carbo- 
hydrates. This  means  that  they  are  more  completely 
digested  and  furnish  more  of  the  material  needed  for  tissue- 
building  in  the  body.  They  also  supply  a  good  amount  of 
fat,  but  not  in  such  large  proportions  that  unless  large 
amounts  of  fat  meat  such  as  pork  or  bacon  were  eaten  the 
body  could  get  all  the  fuel  it  needed  from  them  without 
getting  a  superfluous  amount  of  protein.  A  diet  of  meat  and 
animal  fat  only  seems  suited  to  the  Eskimo  and  others  who 
live  in  polar  regions,  but  is  not  wholesome  or  practical  in 
temperate  and  warm  climates.  Hence  the  ordinary  custom 
of  living  on  a  mixed  diet  of  meats,  or  nitrogenous  foods,  and 
vegetables,  or  carbonaceous  foods,  is  very  sensible,  because 
it  furnishes  sufficient  of  both  building  material  and  fuel  with- 
out loading  the  digestive  organs  with  a  great  excess  of 
either. 

When  we  compare  the  meat  of  poultry  with  fhat  of  beef, 
veal,  lamb  and  pork,  we  find  that,  in  general,  the  refuse  in 
poultry  is  slightly  less  than  in  the  other  meats.  The  amount 
of  refuse,  however,  varies  somewhat  with  the  tastes  and 
habits  of  the  consumer.  Cocks'  combs  and  chicken  feet  are 
used  for  broth  and  other  purposes  in  some  parts  of  Europe, 
but  are  usually  thrown  away  by  us.  Some  persons  enjoy  eat- 
ing the  crisp  skin  of  well  roasted  birds,  while  in  other  fam- 
ilies it  is  discarded  as  undesirable.  If  the  carcass  is  boiled 
for  broth,  much  of  the  nutritious  material  in  the  bones, 
which  would  otherwise  be  quite  useless,  is  cooked  out  and 
saved  from  waste.  In  these  and  other  ways  it  may  be  seen 
that  the  amount  of  actual  refuse  from  poultry  is  a  variable 
quantity.  The  figures  representing  the  refuse  in  the  accom- 
panying tables  include  only  the  bones,  as  the  head,  feet,  and 
entrails  were  removed  from  the  birds  before  analysis.  If 
the  amount  of  refuse  in  poultry  is  in  general  somewhat  less 
than  in  the  other  meats,  the  amount  of  water  it  contains  is, 
on  the  average,  slightly  more.  The  difference  in  the  amount 
of   indigestible    nutrients   in    the    two    classes    is    surprisingly 


Food  Value  of  Poultry_Products  359 

small,  on  the  average  one-tenth  -of  one  per  cent,  less  in 
poultry  than  in  beef,  veal  and  mutton.  Reckoning  these  dif- 
ferences together  we  find  that  about  1  per  cent,  more  of  the 
poultry  is  actually  available  to  the  body  than  of  the  other 
meats.  On  the  average,  from  2  to  3  per  cent,  more  of  pro- 
tein is  furnished  to  the  body  from  poultry  than  from  the 
others,  and  slightly  more  ash.  But  while  poultry  shows  a 
slight  superiority  in  these  respects,  in  fuel  value  it  is  slightly 
inferior,  as  on  the  average  it  contains  a  smaller  proportion 
of  fat.  To  state  these  facts  in  another  way,  a  slightly  larger 
proportion  of  the  material  purchased  in  poultry  is  actually 
used  by  the  body  and  furnishes  a  slightly  greater  proportion 
of  the  tissue-forming  substances,  but  slightlj^  less  of  the 
materials  which  give  energy  and  heat.  These  differences  are 
very  small  indeed  when  applied  to  the  amount  of  meat  ordi- 
narily eaten  at  a  meal,  and  might  easily  be  counterbalanced 
by  the  tenderness  or  toughness,  the  fatness  or  leanness  of 
a  particular  specimen  or  bj-  the  mode  of  cooking. 

What  has  been  said  in  the  last  paragraph  refers  of  course 
to  the  differences  between  poultry  in  general  and  the  other 
common  meats  in  general.  Let  us  now  see  how  the  different 
kinds  of  poultry  compare  with  one  another  in  nutritive  value. 
Our  statements  must  of  course  refer  only  to  the  average 
composition  of  birds  of  a  given  kind,  and  when  the  differ- 
ences between  the  two  kinds  are  on  the  average  very  slight, 
it  might  easily  happen  that  differences  in  individual  speci- 
mens would  change  the  aspect  of  the  comparison.  The  com- 
position of  a  bird  that  had  been  specially  fattened  would  of 
course  differ  from  that  of  one  that  had  not.  The  data  on 
which  the  comparisons  here  made  are  based  are  from  analy- 
ses of  poultry  not  specially  fattened,  but  selected  as  being 
in  good  marketable  condition  at  the  time  of  analysis. 

Common  fowl — by  which  we  mean  here  the  mature  birds — 
contain  a  little  more  refuse  than  the  average  poultry,  a  little 
less  water,  and  about  the  average  of  indigestible  nutrients;  it 
is  about  like  the  average  in  protein  and  richer  than  most  in 
fat.  Chicken  (birds  under  one  year  of  age)  contains  about 
the  same  proportion  of  refuse  as  fowl,  noticeably  more 
water,  and  slightly  less  indigestible  nutrients.  It  contains 
about  the  average  amount  of  protein,  but  is  poor  in  fat  and 
has  a  correspondingly  low  fuel  value.     Capon  has  about  the 


260       Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

same  proportions  of  ingredients  as  fowl.  Turkey  has  com- 
paratively little  water  and  indigestible  nutrients,  and  is  rich 
in  both  protein  and  fat.  Guinca-hcn  contains  large  propor- 
tions of  refuse  and  water,  is  rich  in  protein  but  poor  in 
fat. 

The  poultry  game-birds,  pheasants  and  quail,  contain 
rather  small  percentages  of  refuse,  large  amounts  of  water, 
and  small  proportions  of  indigestible  nutrients;  they  are- rich 
in  protein  and  poor  in  fat. 

Curiously  enough,  squabs,  as  the  young  of  pigeon  are 
called,  differ  from  the  average  composition  of  poultry 
reversely  from  pigeon;  where  they  are  poor,  pigeons  are  rich, 
and  vice  versa.  Squabs  contain  more  refuse  and  less  water 
than  the  average  poultry,  have  a  high  percentage  of  indigest- 
ible nutrients,  are  rich  in  protein  and  poor  in  fat.  On  the 
other  hand,  pigeons  contain  little  refuse,  large  amounts  of 
water,  comparatively  little  of  indigestible  nutrients,  a  good 
deal  of  protein  and  comparatively  little  fat. 

The  analyses  of  goose  and  green  goose  show  little  refuse 
and  water,  almost  the  largest  percentages  of  indigestible 
nutrients,  little  protein  and  large  quantities  of  fat;  because  of 
this  excessive  fat  they  have  a  higher  fuel  value  than  any 
other  meats  except  duckling  and  fat  pork. 

Duck  and  duckling  both  contain  comparatively  large 
amounts  of  refuse,  small  amounts  of  water,  large  percentages 
of  indigestible  nutrients,  little  protein  and  large  quantities 
of  fat.  According  to  these  figures  duckling  contains  more 
fat  than  any  other  kind  <if  poultry,  almost  onc-fifth  more 
than  chicken. 

From  these  somewhat  complicated  details  we  may  make  a 
few  general  statements.  The  light-fleshed  birds  (fowl,  tur- 
key, guinea-fov.'l,  pheasant  and  quail)  are  ordinarily  richer 
in  protein  and  poorer  in  fat  than  the  dark-fleshed.  On 
account  of  their  low  percentage  of  fat,  they  show  a  lower 
proportion  of  indigestible  nutrients,  but  also  a  lower  fuel 
value.  In  common  fowl  and  perhaps  in  all  light-fleshed  vari- 
eties the  flesh  of  the  young  seems  to  yield  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  protein  and  a  correspondingly  smaller  proportion  of 
fat  than  that  of  mature  birds.  Tn  tlie  dark-fleshed  kinds,  the 
reverse  seems  to  hold,  the  young  containing  less  protein 
and  more  fat  than  the  old.     As  a  general  tiling  young  birds 


Food  Value  of  Poultry  Products  261 

have  a  smaller,  lighter  skeleton  in  proportion  to  their  total 
weight,  and  therefore  show  smaller  percentages  of  refuse 
than  the  old  birds.  The  young  have  also  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  water  in  their  flesh,  which  may  partially  explain  why 
it  is  so  much  more  tender  to  the  teeth. 

Some  of  the  differences  in  the  nutritive  value  of  the  vari- 
ous kinds  of  poultry  are  so  large  that  they  ought  to  be 
considered  in  planning  dietaries.  If  green  goose  with  31  per 
cent,  of  fat  were  replaced  by  chicken  wnth  6.8  per  cent,  of  fat, 
or  duckling  with  11.6  per  cent,  protein  by  turkey  containing 
18.8  per  cent  protein,  the  proportion  of  fuel  and  tissue  build- 
ing material  furnished  to  the  body  might  be  noticeably 
changed.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would  be  foolish  to  insist 
on  the  very  slight  differences  between  closely-related  birds 
like  turkey  and  chicken  or  duck  and  goose.  Such  differences 
would  hardly  be  noticeable  in  the  ordinary  mixed  diet,  and, 
as  was  observed  in  comparing  poultry  with  other  meats,  the 
differences  may  vary  with  individual  birds,  or  there  may  be 
greater  losses  in  cooking  to  counterbalance  advantages  in 
the  original  composition.  Very  often,  too,  the  prices  of  dif- 
ferent birds  vary  enough  to  offset  the  slight  differences  in 
composition. 

There  are  a  great  many  interesting  theories  as  to  the  espe- 
cial worth  or  wortlilcssness  of  different  parts  of  the  flesh  of 
poultry.  For  example,  it  is  often  held  that  while  the  breast 
of  duck  is  very  nutritious  and  wholesome  the  rest  of  the  bird 
is  hardly  fit  to  eat.  This  maj'  be  partly  due  to  the  old 
prejudice  against  duck-meat,  hut  there  is  a  small  grain  of 
truth  in  it.  In  the  figures  in  the  table  it  appears  that  the 
breast-meat  of  duck  contains  4.7  per  cent,  more  protein  and 
22.6  per  cent,  less  fat  than  the  other  edible  parts.  If,  as  is 
commonly  supposed,  cooked  fat  is  less  digestible  than  the 
other  nutrients  of  food,  meat  from  the  breast  would  of 
course  need  less  labor  of  djgestion  than  the  other  parts,  and 
would  also  furnish  more  protein  from  the  same  weight  of 
food,  and  would  really  be  a  better  food,  especially  for  per- 
sons with  weak  digestions. 

One  often  hears  it  said  that  the  light  meat  of  fowl,  turkey, 
etc.,  is  more  nutritious  or  more  easily  digested  than  the 
dark.  Table  3  shows  that  the  light  portions  of  these  meats 
do  contain  a  little  more  protein  and  less  fat  than  the  dark, 


262        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

and  maj'  therefore  yield  more  nourishment  for  the  same 
amount  of  digestive  effort.  But  this  difference,  as  far  as  it 
may  be  definitely  stated,  seems  to  depend  on  the  chemical 
composition  of  the  different  parts  and  not,  as  many  have 
maintained,  on  the  texture  of  the  meat  fibres.  Light  meat 
is  surely  more  tender  to  the  teeth,  and  one  may  reason  that 
it  must  therefore  be  more  easily  acted  upon  by  the  digestive 
juices;  but  it  is  equ^llly  probable  that  the  fibres  of  light  meat 
are  more  closely  set  than  those  in  the  dark  meat,  and  it  may 
be  argued  with  equal  plausibility  that  the  dark  meat  is  there- 
fore more  easily  affected  by  the  juices.  There  is  very  little 
definitely  known  upon  this  point,  save  that  the  differences 
are  too  small  to  be  of  importance  to  any  but  the  weakest 
digestions.  It  has  been  shown  by  experiment  that  boiled 
chicken  leaves  the  stomach  more  quickly  than  roasted;  hence 
it  seems  probable  that  the  mode  of  cooking  makes  more 
difference  in  the  digestibility  than  the  very  slight  differences 
of  composition  or  mixture. 

Place  of  Eggs  and  Poultry  in  the  Diet. 

The  food  value  of  eggs  and  poultry  is  appreciated  by 
all  peoples  in  nearly  all  lands.  Their  value  cannot  be 
based  alone  on  their  relative  cost  or  their  nutritive  value, 
since  they  are  also  valuable  for  giving  variety  and 
attractiveness  to  the  diet  as  well  as  suitable  for  light, 
easily  digested  meals  for  those  in  ill  health  or  for  those 
of  sedentary  habits.  We  quote  from  Storrs'  a  table, 
which  shows  the  relative  values  of  certain  foods  based 
upon  average  prices.  A  study  of  this  will  surprise  one 
as  to  how  the  diet  may  be  varied  and  yet  keep  within  the 
limits  of  economy.  Certain  forms  of  serving  eggs  and 
poultry  make  an  equal  cost  go  farther  in  the  diet  than 
do  many  forms  of  meat  foods.  The  greater  use  of  poul- 
try products  is  urged  from  the  standpoint  of  relative 
economy  as  well  as  for  the  sake  of  the  better  enjoyment 
of  one's  diet : 


Food  Value  of  Poultry  Products 


263 


Cost  of  Digestible  Nutrients  Per  Pound  and  Available 
Energy  per  looo  Calories,  and  Amounts  of  Digest- 
ible Nutrients  and  Available  Energy  Furnisked 
for  10  Cents  by  Poultry  at  certain  Prices 
Per  Pound. 


B 
D 
O 

a 

1 
o 

111 

Cost  per  Lb 

O    be 

o    c 

6° 

Amounts  for  10  cts. 

Food  Material. 

o 

i 

■3  a 

is 

iD'Z 

Fowl 

.20 
.20 
.25 
.38 
.28 
.23 
.28 
.25 
.30 

:i 

.19 
1.00 

it 

.58 
.25 
.12 
.20 
.12 
.12 
.10 
.07 
.16 
.03 
.25 
.03 
.06 
.05 
.01 
IV^c. 

$      .90 

1.08 

1.20 

1.16 

1.45 

2.20 

1.63 

1.25 

1.52 

1.68 

2.59 

1.39 

1.94 

2.18 

1.01 

4.78 

1.85 

.94 

3.82 

1.56 

.75 

1.37 

92 

6^67 

.93 

.45 

1.39 

.94 

25.00 

.31 

.77 

.29 

.67 

5.00 

%     .97 

1.17 

1.30 

2.94 

3.68 

5.59 

1.69 

1.49 

1.82 

1.64 

1.13 

.83 

1.16 

.94 

3.73 

25.00 

6.90 

2.00 

3.28 

1.48 

1.43 

1.38 

.46 

.14 

5.00 

1.75 

1.72 

.75 

.29 

3.00 

4.61 

2.77 

10.00 

5.00 

$   .15 
.18 
.20 
.31 
.39 
.60 
.26 
.22 
.27 
.26 
.22 
.15 
.21 
.18 
.32 
1.70 
.59 
.23 
.54 
.25 
.17 
.22 
.10 
.03 
.46 
22 
".26 
.10 
.07 
.02 
.05 
.03 
.03 
.08 

.67     .11  1   .10  ;    665 

Fowl 

.56 
.50 
.50 
.40 
.26 

:!l 

.36 
.40 
.33 
.50 
.36 
.34 
.53 
.10 
.25 
.56 
.17 
.40 
.83 
.50 
.83 
.83 
1.00 
1.43 
.63 
3.33 
.40 
3.33 
1.67 
2.00 
10.00 
6.67 

.09 
.08 
.09 
.07 
.05 
.06 

:S? 

.06 
.04 
.07 
.05 
.05 
.10 
.02 
.05 
.11 
.03 
.06 
.13 
.07 
.11 
.02 
.11 
.22 
.07 
.11 

'.32 
.13 
.35 
.15 
.02 

.09 
.08 
.03 
.03 
.02 
.06 
.07 
.05 
.06 
.09 
.12 
.09 
.11 
.03 

."6i 

.05 
.03 
.06 
.08 
.07 
.19 
.68 

;6i 

.06 
.13 
.32 
.03 
.02 
.03 
.01 
.02 

550 

Fowl          .  . 

500 

Roasting   chicken 

Roasting   chicken 

Roasting   chicken 

320 

255 
170 
3  85 

Turkey 

450 
370 

Duck 

380 

Duckling          

460 

665 

475 

Green    goo.se,     

550 
315 

60 

Quail                              .    .  . 

170 

Pigeon,     

Squab 

425 

185 

Beef     loin 

410 

Beef,   shoulder  clod,    .  . 
Mutton     leg      

595 
445 

Pork     loin 

1035 

Pork,   salt,   fat 

Cod,    fresh,   dressed,    . . 
Cod    salt 

2950 
220 
465 

Eggs,   24c.   per   doz.,    .  . 
Milk,   6c.   per  qt.,    

385 
1030 
1365 

5440 

Bread,   wheat 

Beans,    dried 

Potatoes,    60c.   per   bu. 
Apples 

2000 
3040 
2955 
1270 

In  the  use  of  poultry  products  no  caution  need  be 
exercised  which  is  not  present  in  other  similar  foods. 
Over-indulgence  may  result  in  evil  effects.  There  is  an 
occasional  person  who  cannot  eat  any  food  containing 


264        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

egg  without  suffering  distress.  X'o  explanation  can  be 
given  other  than  the  same  holds  true  with  other  foods 
in  individual  cases.  With  the  egg  there  may  be  danger 
of  infection  from  its  use  where  filthy  conditions  have 
surrounded  its  production  and  its  care.  The  shell  is 
porous  and  too  cleanly  conditions  cannot  be  given  it,  yet 
but  few  cases  of  infection  are  reported  in  a  nation  which 
uses  immense  quantities  annually. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  general  awak- 
ening as  to  the  use  of  eggs  and  poultry  as  a  dietary  priv- 
ilege will  continue  until  even  the  poorest  home  may  enjoy 
their  delicate  flavors  and  nutritive  values. 


Chapter  XVII. 
CAPONS  AND  CAPONIZING. 

General. 

A  Capon  is  a  male  chicken  castrated  to  improve  his 
flesh  for  table  use. 

Caponiaing  is  the  act  of  castrating  a  male  chicken. 

A  sup  is  a  partial  failure  in  the  caponizing  operation. 

Spaying  is  the  operation  which  removes  the  ovaries 
of  a  female  chicken. 

A  cock  or  cockerel  kept  when  not  desired  for  purposes 
of  reproduction  is  a  loss  to  his  owner.  Either  has  a 
natural  tendency  to  annoy  other  fowls  and  is  of  small 
demand  for  food.  Caponizing  transforms  him  into  a 
docile,  tender-fleshed  bird  often  weighing  at  maturity 
twice  as  much  as  otherwise  and  bringing  from  three  to 
ten  cents  advance  per  pound.  From  the  small  beginning 
of  the  "  Philadelphia  capon  "  the  industry  has  grown 
to  a  dimension  where  the  demand  has  never  been  sup- 
plied. The  sweet,  tender  flesh  cannot  be  duplicated  and 
every  poultryman  should  supply  his  or  her  table  as  well 
as  take  advantage  of  the  financial  possibilities  of  capon 
raising. 

Capons  never  crow  nor  fight,  are  not  respected  by  other 
chickens,  require  less  food,  less  room  and  less  care. 
While  their  spurs  keep  on  growing  their  combs  and  wat- 
tles cease  growth  and  lose  their  bright  red  color.  For 
commercial  gain  the  wattles  should  be  shorn  at  the  time 
of  caponizing.  The  plumage  and  bearing  of  a  capon  im- 
265 


266        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

prove.    They  often  become  so  motherly  that  they  are  used 
to  brood  chicks. 

The  ordinary  hatch  will  develop  one-half  or  more  cock- 
erels. The  loss  in  caponizing  varies  from  one  to  five 
per  cent  owing  to  the  skill  of  the  operator.  It  is  not  a  dif- 
ficult operation  and  any  one  can  readily  perform  it. 
The  discomforture  to  the  bird  is  very  slight  and  there 
is  no  element  of  cruelty  while  there  is  a  positive  good 
to  the  fowl,  saving  all  future  quarreling  and  subsequent 
injury.  If  one  does  not  desire  to  do  his  own  operating 
skilled  operators  may  be  hired  at  very  reasonable  ex- 
pense. A  slip  is  of  no  value  as  a  breeder  and  is  as  much 
bother  as  a  cockerel.  Only  one  disadvantage  can  be 
named  against  the  capon  and  that  is  he  must  be  carried 
through  the  winter  for  both  feed  and  housing  although 
he  can  be  successfully  crowded.  They  are  seldom  at- 
tacked by  disease.  Spaying  has  no  commercial  advantage 
and  is  seldom  done. 

Tools  for  Caponizing. 

No  one  can  afiford  to  use  other  than  the  best  tools. 
Always  follow  the  direction  of  the  manufacturer  ex- 
plicitly as  different  makes  require  different  handling.  Some 
makers  combine  two  or  more  tools  in  one.  In  their  order 
of  use  they  include  in  a  general  way  the  following: 

1.  An  operating  table,  easel  or  tilting  stand.  The  table 
or  stand  should  be  about  two  feet  wide  and  three  feet 
long  with  a  hole  or  notch  in  either  end  to  accommodate 
the  weight  strings. 

2.  Two    large    cords    or    thongs. 

3.  Two  one  pound  weights. 

4.  A   small  instrument   stand   or  tray. 

5.  A  thin  steel  knife  for  incision  work. 

6.  A  spring  spreader  to  hold  open  the  incision. 

7.  A   probe   for   internal   use. 


Capons  and  Caponizing  267 

8.  A   twisting  scoop   or   spoon,   or   a   canula   with  a  loop. 

9.  A  hook  for  opening  the  membrane. 

10.  A  pair  of  forceps  or  nippers. 

11.  A  sponge  or  absorbent  cotton. 

12.  Carbolic  acid  for  the  two  per  cent  water  solution. 

13.  Two  one-quart  enamelware   basins. 

14.  A  pad  to  rest  the  fowl  upon. 

15.  A  headlight  or  mirrors  if  desired. 

16.  A   satchel   or   tool    case. 

Breeds,  Age  and  Time  to  Caponize. 
The  American  and  Asiatic  breeds  are  satisfactory  for 
capons.  The  larger  the  frame  the  easier  to  operate  and 
as  a  rule  the  heavier  the  developed  capon.  Cockerels 
should  be  from  six  weeks  to  four  months  old,  depending 
upon  the  breed  and  their  stage  of  development.  They 
should  be  taken  before  the  comb  of  the  cockerel  begins 
to  shoot  and  never  when  weighing  over  three  pounds 
or  when  older  than  five  months.  If  taken  too  young  they 
may  slip.  The  hot  summer  months  are  not  so  favorable 
as  cooler  months. 

Directions  for  Caponizing. 

After  choosing  the  cockerels  to  caponize  place  them  in 
a  dry  pen  without  food  and  little  water  for  about  forty 
hours.  Shutting  them  up  at  night  will  make  them  ready 
for  the  late  morning  light  of  the  second  day.  Do  not 
operate  on  a  dark  and  gloomy  day  both  because  of  the 
influence  on  the  cockerels  and  the  greater  difficulty  in 
operating.  Where  strong  artificial  light  is  used  the 
weather  is  not  so  important.  The  entrails  must  be  per- 
fectly empty  or  nearly  so  in  order  that  the  testicles  may 
be  seen  readily  and  allow  more  room  for  the  use  of  the 
necessary  instruments. 

Place  the  stand  or  table  in  the  best  light  obtainable 
and  the  tool  tray  or  stand  in  a  handy  position.     About 


268        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

the  legs  of  the  bird  just  above  the  knees  place  the  cord 
or  thong  in  a  draw  loop  or  a  double  wrap  and  to  the 
opposite  end  hang  a  weight.  About  both  wings  near  the 
body  place  a  similar  cord  in  a  similar  manner.  When 
completed  lay  the  bird  upon  the  table  on  his  left  side  with 
a  weight  hanging  over  each  notched  end  of  the  table 
or  through  the  holes  made  to  contain  the  cord.  Pluck 
away  a  few  small  feathers  at  a  point  about  an  inch  in 
front  of  the  thigh  joint  and  an  inch  belovv^  the  backbone 
which  should  bare  a  place  over  the  first  and  second  ribs. 
Sponge  off  the  part  with  sterilized  water. 

Now  comes  the  incision  which  is  made  by  pushing  the 
skin  and  muscles  with  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand  toward 
the  thigh  and  noting  with  the  right  hand  and  eyes  the 
slight  depression  between  the  last  two  ribs.  One  can 
also  see  and  feel  the  two  whitish  knobs  which  may  form 
the  lower  point  of  the  incision  in  a  small  cockerel.  Take 
the  knife  in  the  right  hand  and  cut  through  the  skin  and 
thin  rib  covering  making  an  incision  about  an  inch  long. 
Be  careful  not  to  cut  too  close  to  the  backbone  or  spina^ 
column  or  too  deep  and  thereby  injure  the  intestines  and 
lungs.  Before  removing  the  left  hand  lay  down  the  knife 
and  insert  the  spring  spreader  in  the  opening  and  release 
it,  thus  exposing  the  thin  inner  membrane.  Should  an 
occasional  drop  of  blood  flow  take  the  damp  sponge  and 
remove  it.  Handle  the  sponge  with  the  njppers  when 
working  within  the  opening. 

After  cleaning  off  the  membrane  take  the  hook  and  with 
a  short  upward  (toward  the  backbone)  movement  pick 
away  the  membrane  and  expose  the  internal  organs.  If  the 
bowels  are  properly  emptied  the  testicles  will  appear  in 
view  attached  by  fine  cords  on  either  side  of  a  large  artery 
lying  next  to  the  backbone.  One  testicle  will  lie  almost 
directly  under  the  other.     They  will  vary  from  yellow- 


Capons  and  Caponizing 


269 


ish  to  almost  black  in  color  and  be  pea,  bean  or  worm 
shaped,  depending  on  the  size  and  breed  of  the  cockerel. 

Types  of  Caponizing  Instruments. 


CANULAS 


SPREADERS 


If  the  intestines  are  in  the  way  use  the  probe  to  push 
them  to  one  side.  If  the  operation  is  to  be  a  single  in- 
cision take  the  twisting  spoon  or  canula  and  push  it  well 


270        Science  axd  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

under  the  lower  testicle  being  careful  in  all  cases  not  to 
touch  the  artery.  When  the  testicle  is  in  the  hollow  of 
the  spoon  the  cord  is  easily  slipped  into  the  slit  and  by 
a  turning  and  drawing  motion  the  testicle  is  twisted  off 
and  removed.  When  a  canula  is  used  the  loop  is  slipped 
over  the  testicle  and  drawn  taut  and  thus  twisted  off. 
The  upper  testicle  is  then  removed  more  readily. 

If  a  double  incision  is  to  be  made  only  the  upper  tes- 
ticle is  removed  and  the  operation  is  repeated  on  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  bird.  The  beginner  should  not  at- 
tempt the  single  incision.  Be  sure  to  remove  all  the  tes- 
ticle and  a  little  of  the  cord,  since  any  partial  failure 
will  cause  a  slip.  With  the  sponge  and  nippers  remove 
any  blood  clots,  foreign  substances  or  removed  testicles 
from  the  opening  and  thus  avoid  blood  poisoning.  As 
a  last  step  remove  the  spreader  and  allow  the  drawn 
skin  to  slip  past  the  point  of  incision,  closing  the  open- 
ing completely.  Put  nothing  upon  the  wound.  Never 
fail  to  sterilize  every  instrument  and  sponge  before  and 
after  each  operation.  Any  bird  whose  artery  has  been 
cut  will  bleed  to  death  quickly  and  should  be  plucked 
and  dressed  for  table  use. 

The  Care  and  Feeding  of  Capons. 

For  a  few  days  keep  the  birds  in  a  dry  and  clean  place, 
giving  them  soft  food  and  plenty  of  water.  They  will 
act  as  if  nothing  had  happened.  For  a  week  watch  them 
and  if  any  show  a  swelling  or  "  wind-pufif  "  take  a  ster- 
ilized needle  or  pen  knife  and  puncture  it  carefully  in 
one  or  two  places  after  which  slowly  press  out  the  air. 
They  will  give  you  no  further  trouble.  Opinion  is  di- 
vided on  light  or  heavy  feeding  during  the  first  week, 
and  as  to  the  proper  methods  later.  Whether  one  uses 
dry  hopper  feeding  or  mash  feeding  there  is  one  prin- 


Capons  and  Caponizing  271 

ciple  to  remember,  that  of  frame  building  first  and  then 
fattening  during  the  last  three  weeks.  Read  carefully 
the  chapter  on  "  Foods  and  Feeding  "  found  elsewhere 
in  this  volume.  The  chosen  method  of  feeding  will  de- 
pend upon  the  kind  of  feed  available,  cost  of  labor,  the 
climate,  kind  of  shelter,  the  breed,  time  of  caponizing 
and  the  time  one  intends  to  market. 

]\I  ARRETING. 

The  season  of  high  prices  for  capons  is  usually  during 
February,  March  and  April  at  which  time  the  capon 
has  his  full  growth.  Most  breeds  cease  growing  at  about 
fifteen  months  old  after  which  time  they  are  kept  at  no 
gain  and  often  at  a  loss.  Selling  alive  is  usually  the  most 
profitable.  For  the  characteristic  method  of  dressing 
capons  see  the  chapter  on  "  Preparing  and  Marketing 
Poultry  and  Its  By-Products,"  found  in  this  volume. 


Chapter  XVIII. 
THE  CRATE  AND  MILK-FEEDING  INDUSTRIES. 

The  beginning  of  this  industry  dates  back  centuries 
into  Roman  and  even  into  Egyptian  history.  It  steadily 
grew  in  favor  in  Europe,  especially  in  England  and  in 
very  recent  years  is  assuming  large  proportions  in  x\mer- 
ica  and  Canada. 

DcRncd — Crate  and  milk-feeding  is  the  placing  of 
poultry  in  close  confinement  under  healthful  conditions 
and  forcing  the  growth  of  superior  flesh  by  means  of  an 
economical  and  well  balanced  food   ration. 

Demand — The  demand  for  milk-fed  poultry  has  always 
exceeded  the  supply  and  because  of  the  value  and  at- 
tractiveness of  the  meat  the  supply  will  never  equal  the 
demand. 

Advantages  of  Cratc-Fccding — The  fowls  being  allowed 
no  exercise  and  kept  under  healthful  conditions  take 
upon  themselves  flesh  and  fat  forming  development  only, 
due  to  the  methods  of  handling  and  feeding.  The  disuse 
of  the  hard  and  sinewy  muscles  allows  them  to  become 
more  tender  and  loose  and  instead  of  the  fat  being  de- 
posited at  a  few  points  it  is  spread  through  the  tissues 
of  the  entire  bird.  The  nuiscular  portions  fill  out  plump 
and  round.  The  plump,  meaty,  attractive  shape,  combined 
with  a  clean,  clear  white  or  yellow  skin  sells  readily 
at  a  much  higher  price  than  his  field-fed  kin.  The  greater 
tenderness  of  the  flesh,  the  improved  quality  of  the  flavor 
and  the  much  greater  per  cent  of  lean  meat  will  always 
272 


Crate  and  Milk  Feeding  Industries 


Zll 


increase  the  demand.  Once  a  customer  always  a  cus- 
tomer is  more  than  applicable  to  milk-fed  poultry.  The 
pleasant  odor,  the  firm,  elastic  flesh  and  easy  cooking 
qualities  are  the  delight  of  the  professional  cook. 


BLACK  LANGSHAN. 
Courtesy  of  Jessie   T.   Bateman. 


Labor  Requirements — Anyone  who  is  old  enough  to 
do  the  physical  act  of  handling  the  poultry  and  pre- 
paring the  food  is  capable  of  going  into  this  business. 
It    requires   regular   and   careful   attention    rather   than 


274        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

difficult  theory.  Many  farmers  arc  running  small  plants 
at  much  profit.  Boys  of  tender  age  have  won  some  of 
the  best  prizes  offered  for  the  best  crates  of  milk-fed 
poultry.  Commission  houses  in  the  large  cities  are  op- 
erating profitable  plants  while  the  larger  packing  houses 
have  established  immense  plants  throughout  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  Many  individual  consumers  never 
supply  their  table  with  range  fowls. 

Cost  and  Profits — Estimates  are  variously  placed  as  to 
the  cost  of  milk-feeding  per  pound  live  weight.  Author- 
ities range  from  four  to  eight  cents  per  pound  depend- 
ing on  the  price  of  labor,  foods,  and  investment.  The  first 
cost  of  the  poultry  is  also  an  important  factor.  The 
average  net  profit  is  stated  as  thirty  per  cent  on  the  in- 
vestment for  the  fattening  season.  A  private  market 
gives  the  best  returns  unless  one  is  prepared  to  hold  in 
cold  storage  for  high  markets. 

Location  and  Equipment — There  is  no  place  where 
poultry  can  be  grown  where  this  industry  could  not  be 
successfully  carried  on.  The  seasons  will  govern  crate  lo- 
cation (as  applied  locally).  During  warm,  moderate 
weather  under  a  tree  or  other  shelter  is  a  good  location. 
In  cold  weather  a  building  of  some  kind  should  be  sup- 
plied. There  is  one  principle  governing  the  entire  field 
which  can  be  stated  as  follows :  any  temperature  or 
physical  condition  of  the  air  which  saps  vitality  or  hin- 
ders flesh  development  should  be  avoided.  This  rule  ap- 
plies the  world  over  and  each  must  study  his  or  her  local 
conditions  and  act  accordingly.  Pure  fresh  air  is  es- 
sential. 

The  equipment  consists  of  crates  either  in  single  rows 
or  in  tiers  with  the  necessary  utensils  to  properly  feed, 
water  and  clean.  The  standard  crate  is  about  three 
and  one-half  feet  long,  eighteen  inches  high  and  eighteen 


Crate  and  Milk  Feeding  Industries  275 

inches  deep.     The  top  should  be  sohd  and  waterproof 
if   used   outside.     The   bottom   should   be   composed   of 
one  by  two-inch  slats  placed  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
apart   lengthwise   of   coop  and   beveled   to   one   inch   in 
width  on  the  under  side,  making  it  self-cleaning.     The 
rear  side  and  two  ends  should  consist  of  one  by  two-inch 
slats  placed  lengthwise  of  the  coop  and  two  inches  apart. 
Many  use  one-inch  mesh  wire  netting  for  the  back  side 
and  two  ends,  if  the  proper  protection  exists  from  the 
sun,  wind  and  rain.    The  front  of  the  coop  is  slatted  with 
three-quarters  by  one  and  one-half  inch  material  placed 
one  and  three-quarters  inches  apart.     A  door  is  made 
either  in  the  top  or  side  for  convenience  in  handling  the 
fowls.     This  co(5p  will  answer  the  requirements  of  any 
sized  poultry.    The  3-inch  deep  trough  is  placed  in  front 
of  the   coop   resting  upon   extensions   at   either   end   of 
the  coop.     Many  feed,  water  and  supply  grit  in  the  one 
trough.    Others  provide  other  means  for  water  and  grit. 
Two  tiers,  one  fifteen  inches  from  the  ground  upon  posts 
gives  better  satisfaction  than  more,  since  the  odor  from 
below  seems  to  affect  the  upper  tiers  and  they  do  not 
make  rapid  gains.     Some  operators  prefer  to  be  able  to 
darken   the   coops    except   when   feeding,    using   electric 
or  other  lights  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year.    The  drop- 
pings are  caught  in  pans  or  by  means  of  sand  or  other 
absorbenc  and  removed  daily.     A  cramming  machine  is 
not  essential  and  is  little  used. 

Fozvls  Used — The  finished  product  is  governed  by  the 
demand.     Four  principal  quotations  are  found. 

Squab  Broilers,  weighing  three-quarters  to  one  pound 
each,  demanded  mainly  from  February  to  June  and  crate- 
fed  about  ten  days. 

Broilers,  weighing  one  and  one-half  to  two  pounds 


276        SciFXCE  AND  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

each,  demanded  from  February  to  August  and  crate-fed 
about  two  and  one-half  weeks. 

Roasters,  weighing  three  to  five  pounds  each,  demanded 
from  August  to  January  and  crate-fed  about  three  weeks. 

Adult  Roasters,  lean  fowls  fed  not  over  three  and  one- 
half  weeks. 

For  each  class  the  favorite  breeds  are  the  American 
breeds  and  preferably  one  with  a  broad,  full  breast, 
smooth  yellow  legs,  white  skin,  medium  weight,  light 
frame,  blocky  appearance,  head  and  neck  small  and  com- 
pact and  a  minimum  waste  or  offal.  The  yellow  skin  is 
steadily  giving  way  to  the  white  because  white  is  the  real 
milk-fed  color  except  as  yellow  is  forced  by  food  se- 
lection. Less  deception  may  be  practiced  in  the  white 
skin  on  an  uninformed  public  and  they  are  aware  of 
this  fact  and  purchase  accordingly.  Therefore  in  rais- 
ing or  buying  stock  bear  in  mind  the  demands  of  the  trade 
and  conform  thereto  as  nearly  as  is  possible. 

Crating — Before  placing  poultry  in  crates  be  certain 
each  fowl  is  free  from  lice,  using  proper  means  for  their 
destruction.  The  standard  coop  will  accommodate  from 
seven  to  eighteen  fowls  depending  on  their  class  and  size. 
Do  not  overcrowd.  Remember  it  is  not  profitable  to 
allow  a  fowl  to  occupy  a  coop  longer  than  three  and  one- 
half  weeks  under  ordinary  conditions. 

Foods  and  Feeding — The  grain  foods  mainly  used  are 
ground  oats,  barley,  corn,  wheat,  buckwheat  or  other 
similar  grains.  Oats  ground  and  freed  from  hulls  are 
the  richest  for  crate  fattening.  Corn  is  best  used  in 
lesser  quantities  with  other  grains.  Grains  contain  an 
abundance  of  fats  and  carbohydrates,  hence  the  protein 
element  of  a  balanced  food  is  furnished  by  skim-milk 
and  buttermilk.  A  thick  porridge  is  made  by  using 
milk  in  proper  quantity.     If  milk  is  not  obtainable  use 


Crate  and  Milk  Feeding  Industries  277 

water,  but  supply  the  mash  with  animal  and  vegetable 
elements.  Do  not  use  water  if  milk  or  whey  are  obtain- 
able. It  is  claimed  that  the  phosphates  in  the  milk  tend 
to  whiten  the  flesh.  A  favorite  mash  is  made  by  using 
forty  per  cent  corn  meal,  sixty  per  cent  meal  from  other 
grains  and  skim-milk  or  buttermilk  to  the  needed  amount. 
Do  not  use  sweet  skim-milk  because  of  the  evil  effects 
on  the  digestive  system  and  for  the  same  reason  avoid 
cooked  foods.  Do  not  neglect  plenty  of  fresh  water  and 
fine  grit.  We  now  have  obtained  a  well  balanced  ration 
for  our  purpose,  which  if  properly  prepared  and  fed  will 
be  palatable  to  the  fowls. 

The  first  day  do  not  feed  any  food  and  feed  sparingly 
three  times  a  day  for  the  balance  of  the  first  week.  Let 
them  get  hungry.  This  is  the  preparation  week.  The 
second  week  is  the  flesh  forming  week.  Feed  more  lib- 
erally and  always  short  of  their  full  capacity.  During 
the  middle  of  this  week  begin  adding  to  their  mash  some 
tallow  at  the  rate  of  about  one  pound  to  each  eighty 
fowls.  Prepare  this  by  melting  and  while  hot  mix  with 
dry  corn  meal.  In  this  form  it  will  keep  a  few  days  and 
mix  readily  with  the  mash.  In  all  mashes  use  a  little 
salt.  The  tallow  should  be  increased  the  third  week. 
All  of  the  third  week  is  the  finishing  period  and  crowd 
them  to  their  full  capacity,  but  do  not  leave  food  before 
them  when  they  have  satisfied  themselves.  If  during  the 
feeding  period  any  should  show  a  tendency  to  refuse  food 
take  such  birds  out  of  the  crates  and  let  them  remain 
without  food  for  a  day  after  which  replace  them  in  the 
crates. 

After  each  feeding  clean  out  the  troughs  and  turn 
same  upside  down  till  required  again.  Sometimes  feather- 
eating  develops  among  crate-fed  fowls.  Take  any 
such  out  and  examine  for  mites  or  disease.     If  no  mites 


278       Science  and  Art  of  Poultry   Culture 

appear  increase  the  meat  and  vegetable  elements  of  the 
food  given. 

.  Marketing — No  matter  how  well  the  feeding  has  been 
completed,  tb.e  preparation  of  the  fowls  fur  market 
must  be  careful.  Many  advise  the  dusting  of  all  poul- 
try before  the  starving  for  the  necessary  period  of  20 
to  36  hours  before  killing.  A  good  allowance  of  water 
is  usually  given  a  few  hours  after  their  last  mash.  This 
assists  complete  digestion.  Cold  storage  requires  empty 
organs.  Two  methods  of  killing  are  employed.  Tlie 
bleeding  by  mouth  method  is  better  for  cold  storage  pur- 
poses while  the  process  of  neck  dislocation  saves  the  loss 
of  weight  as  w^ell  as  being  more  cleanly  to  dress.  After 
the  killing  they  should  be  dry  plucked  at  once,  saving  all 
body  feathers  to  be  sold.  After  plucking  each  fowl  is 
placed  upon  a  shaper  to  give  it  a  full,  blocky  appearance. 
The  shaper  is  a  right  angled  trough  made  of  boards 
five  and  six  inches  wide.  These  troughs  may  be  put  on 
a  rack,  a  frame  or  on  the  walls  of  the  room  and  in  tiers 
fourteen  inches  apart  if  desired.  The  breast  is  forced 
down  into  the  angle  of  the  shaper  with  the  legs  along- 
side the  breast.  A  weight  holds  the  chicken  upright  and 
in  place.  After  a  few  hours  when  the  chicken  is  cool 
and  dry  or  after  the  artificial  cooling  they  are  properly 
packed  in  special  packing  cases,  usually  graded  in  doz^n 
lots,  and  marked  with  the  name  of  the  shipper  and  the 
consignee.  See  also  "  Preparing  and  Marketing  Poul- 
try and  Its  By-Products,"  where  complete  descriptions 
occur, 


Chapter  XIX. 
MARKETING  THE  CO^IMERCIAL  EGG. 

The  vastness  of  the  industry  built  up  along  the  lines 
of  egg  marketing  and  the  allied  industries  needed  to 
handle  the  output  is  almost  beyond  belief.  It  will  be  the 
aim  in  this  chapter  to  assist  in  a  practical  manner  to 
help  those  who  wish  to  gain  an  insight  into  the  basic 
business  principles  of  this  industry.  What  every  egg 
producer  or  buyer  is  aiming  at  is  to  obtain  the  largest 
legitimate  profit  out  of  every  transaction.  That  extra 
profit  is  clearly  the  result  of  cleanliness,  careful  testing 
and  grading,  neat  and  attractive  packages,  regularity  of 
shipments,  and  square,  clean  cut  business  methods.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  one  satisfied  customer  is 
the  means  of  securing  another  without  additional  ef- 
fort and  expense.  In  making  contracts  always  base  fu- 
ture deliveries  upon  the  ability  to  obtain  a  sufficient  sup- 
ply during  the  months  of  scarcity. 

Procuring  Eggs — This  problem  is  easily  solved  when 
one  owns  their  own  flocks.  The  owner  should  keep  only 
pure-blood  strains  because  of  the  uniform  color  and  size 
of  the  eggs.  He  should  breed  only  from  stock  that  will 
insure  such  uniformity.  He  should  so  feed  that  the  shell, 
the  color  of  the  yolk  and  the  albumen  of  the  egg  shall 
be  perfect.  The  water,  the  sanitation  and  general  care 
of  the  stock  and  quarters  should  insure  healthfulness. 
The  nests  should  be  kept  clean  and  comfortable  and  be 
of  material  which  will  not  stain  the  newly  laid  egg. 
279 


280        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Good  soft  straw  is  the  best  material  for  this  purpose. 
The  eggs  should  be  gathered  once  each  day  and  oftener 
in  cold  weather. 

The  owner  should  observe  these  points  whether  he  or 
she  expects  to  sell  them  to  a  fancy  trade  or  to  a  buyer 
as  in  either  case  a  better  price  will  be  obtained.  The 
buyer  has  several  ways  open  to  obtain  the  egg  output 
of  a  community.  He  may  send  a  team  and  gather  them 
from  door  to  door  paying  in  cash  or  produce.  This 
method  is  somewhat  expensive  and  often  results  in  n 
local  warfare  between  the  buyer  and  the  stores  to  the 
real  loss  of  both  but  to  the  gain  of  the  seller.  Another 
way  is  to  buy  at  a  given  place  in  the  local  town  or  city 
which  saves  the  expense  of  a  team  but  is  also  open  to  the 
opposition  of  certain  shortsighted  storekeepers.  A  third 
way  when  one  does  not  depend  upon  the  commission 
man  for  his  market  is  to  let  the  stores  buy  the  eggs  of 
the  ordinary  producers  and  then  buy  them  from  the 
stores  in  case  lots.  Where  any  one  producer  has  a  large 
flock  arrangements  may  be  made  to  buy  directly  and  if 
the  eggs  are  properly  cared  for  one  can  afford  to  pay  a 
slight  premium  for  them.  Where  large  quantities  are  de- 
sired a  greater  territory  must  be  reached  by  one  or  more 
of  the  above  methods  and  shipped  to  a  common  point. 
Carload  lots  are  often  gathered  in  one  district  and  for- 
warded for  preservation  or  sale. 

Associations  are  often  formed  for  the  better  handling 
of  the  eggs  of  its  members.  The  headquarters  of  this 
association  is  usually  in  some  city  where  receiving  and 
distributing  are  easily  managed. 

Testing  or  Candling — Much  has  been  said  in  various 
parts  of  the  book  upon  this  subject  and  by  a  reference 
to  the  index  full  and  complete  data  may  be  obtained. 
It  is  the  most  important  item  in  handling  the  commercial 


Marketing  the  CaMMERCiAL  Egg  281 

egg  and  thousands  of  men  and  women  are  employed 
as  experts  along  this  line  at  good  wages. 

Cleaning  Eggs — Nothing  is  much  more  repugnant  to 
a  person  than  the  sight  of  a  dirty  egg  and  to  serve  one 
whose  shell  is  stained  and  blotched  is  to  insult  com- 
mon decency.  Washing  an  egg  takes  off  the  coating  of 
lime  and  other  substances  meant  by  nature  to  protect 
it  and  also  spoils  the  appearance  of  the  egg.  Candlers 
can  readily  pick  out  a  washed  egg.  A  washed  egg  is  un- 
fit for  cold  storage  and  certain  preservatives  unless  it 
be  for  short  periods  only.  Filth  left  upon  the  shell 
is  certainly  harmful,  hence  washing  is  the  lesser  of  the 
two  evils,  but  such  eggs  must  be  turned  to  a  quicker  use. 
Many  eggs  have  but  a  small  spot  or  stain,  often  caused 
by  mud  upon  the  hen's  feet.  To  throw  aside  these  eggs 
would  be  difficult  and  useless,  yet  either  washed  or  with 
the  spot  they  are  not  fancy  or  extra  grades.  Wipe  away 
all  slight  spots  and  stains  with  a  damp,  soft  cloth.  Larger 
spots  and  deeper  stains  wash  with  a  wet  cloth  upon  which 
is  sapolio  or  vinegar  and  then  rub  with  talcum  powder. 
Eggs  not  worth  the  time  handling  each  separately  may 
be  dipped  into  water  a  few  times  and  then  dipped  into 
a  cloudy  limewater  and  dried. 

To  take  off  a  glossy  and  an  uneven  color  appearance 
dip  the  eggs  into  a  combination  of  limewater  and  col- 
oring matter,  such  as  roasted  coffee  or  other  harmless 
vegetable  coloring  matter.  There  are  many  other  ways 
of  coloring  eggs  to  a  uniform  color,  but  all  ways  are  not 
practical,  are  easily  detected  when  used  and  are  often 
harmful.  The  business  way  is  to  clean  only  such  eggs  as 
are  worth  while  and  then  grade  all  cleaned  eggs  honestly 
and  market  them  accordingly.  The  cleaning  will  be 
found  profitable. 

Sorting  and  Grading — This  process  is  often  completed 


282        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

at  the  same  time  as  the  cleaning  goes  forward.  The 
average  market  calls  for  about  four  grades  under  slightly 
varying  names,  yet  all  depending  upon  the  size,  freshness 
and  cleanliness  of  the  eggs. 

1.  Extras,  Fancy  or  Extra  Fancy  requires  a  large, 
perfectly  clean  and  fresh  egg.  When  broken  the  yolk 
should  be  firm  and  the  albumen  should  beat  up  well. 
They  should  weigh  tWpounds  to  the  dozen.  The  eggs 
should  be  free  from  foreign  flavors  caused  by  improper 
feeding  of  the  hens  or  lack  of  proper  care  of  the  eggs. 
No  blood  clots  or  foreign  substance  should  exist  within 
the  egg.  Every  package  should  contain  eggs  of  an  even 
or  uniform  color. 

2.  Firsts,  Selects  or  Prime  Firsts  are  required  to  be 
fresh,  quite  clean,  of  fairly  even  size  and  color,  weigh- 
ing one  and  thre^^^urters  pounds  to  the  dozen. 

3.  Ordinary  or  Seconds  are  mixed  eggs  as  regards 
size,  color  and  freshness,  yet  none  should  be  spoiled  or 
too  soiled.  They  should  weigh  one  and  onc-lnftii  pounds 
to  the  dozen. 

4.  Dirties  take  in  all  those  which  for  appearance  are 
too  soiled  to  classify  elsewhere  and  that  are  beginning 
to  be  the  worse  for  age.  These  find  their  way  into  the 
kitchens  of  restaurants  and  into  bakeshops.  When  the 
market  is  full  man}'  of  the  fresh  ones  are  limed  and  held 
for  a  short  period. 

Egg  Packages — All  egg  packages  should  be  selected 
with  reference  to  the  market  and  to  the  trade.  It  is  man- 
ifest that  dirty  eggs  would  be  out  of  place  in  a  carton 
or  a  fancy  egg  in  an  old  worn  out  case.  The  fancy  trade 
demands  as  much  taste  and  attractiveness  in  the  case 
and  filler  or  carton  as  in  the  egg.  The  usual  case  is 
a  twelve,  fifteen  or  thirty  dozen  case  neatly  stenciled 
at  both  ends  with  the  name  and  address  of  the  owner  or 


Marketing  the  Commercial  Egg  283 

sender.  Each  case  having  a  number  is  also  convenient 
in  accounting.  The  top  should  have  a  patent  fastener 
to  allow  ease  of  handling.  The  smaller  cases  should  have 
a  wire  handle  and  the  larger  ones  a  handhold  at  each 
end.  The  case  should  be  made  of  light,  strong  material 
either  oiled  or  painted.  The  cases  may  run  as  small  as 
a  three  dozen  size,  being  one  layer  of  three  dozens.  Mul- 
tiples of  three  form  the  other  sizes.  The  fillers  may  be 
the  new,  clean  pasteboard  fillers  of  commerce  of  the  de- 
sired weight,  separating  each  egg.  They  usually  hold 
three  dozen  and  make  one  layer. 

Cartons  are  being  used  extensively  not  only  in  the 
fancy  trade  but  in  handling  firsts.  They  consist  of  a 
neat  pasteboard  box  with  a  one-dozen  filler,  three  of  such 
cartons  nicely  filling  one  layer  in  a  case.  They  usually 
bear  some  neat  advertising  matter,  are  handy,  attractive 
and  popular.  They  have  the  earmarks  of  the  good  qual- 
ity found  within.  They  cost  complete  with  printed  mat- 
ter from  $4.50  to  $8.00  per  thousand.  There  are  wire 
fillers  in  use,  and  while  they  make  an  easy  display,  yet 
they  are  more  expensive  to  buy,  to  handle  and  to  replace. 
Of  all  fillers  the  one-dozen  cartons  best  satisfy  the  re- 
tail man  and  the  private  customer  because  they  allow  of 
greater  ease  in  handling,  are  attractive  and  if  eggs 
prove  unsatisfactory  responsibility  is  easily  placed. 

The  prime  firsts  are  sometimes  handled  in  cartons 
as  farm  eggs  and  in  other  ways,  yet  the  great  mass  of 
them  are  moved  in  thirty-dozen  case  lots  with  ordinary 
fillers.  Both  case  and  fillers  should  be  quite  fresh  and 
clean  to  conform  with  the  contents. 

The  ordinary  or  seconds  and  dirties  as  well  as  the  heavy 
shipments  of  ungraded  eggs  are  handled  in  the  cheap 
commercial  thirty-dozen  cases  which  are  largely  sec- 
ond hand.     All  eggs  going  into  cold  storage  must  be 


284         Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

placed  in  new  cases  and  new  fillers  so  a  vast  number 
of  cases  are  sold  second  hand  at  the  low  price  of  five  or 
ten  cents,  while  a  new  case  would  cost  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  cents.  In  all  cases  there  should  be  room  for 
a  little  excelsior  in  the  top  and  bottom  to  take  away 
some  of  the  jar  in  handling-. 

Packing — All  egg-s  should  be  packed  small  end  down 
for  two  reasons.  The  aircell  will  be  up  and  hence  the  yolk 
will  not  tend  to  settle  so  badly  and  the  attractiveness 
of  the  eggs  will  be  increased.  On  all  dirties  and  those 
merely  being  sent  to  a  distributing  or  gathering  point  the 
time  may  be  worth  more  than  the  resulting  good  accom- 
plished by  placing  each  egg  small  end  down. 

Time  and  Method  of  Shipments — The  time  of  ship- 
ment should  be  governed  by  the  business  at  hand  and  the 
facilities.  If  sending  to  private  customers  one  can  ar- 
range for  a  once  a  week  shipment,  thus  economizing  in 
accounting  and  in  the  labor  involved  in  cleaning,  pack- 
ing and  delivering  them  to  the  express  office.  Always 
arrange  to  send  upon  a  train  which  will  get  the  package 
to  the  customer  in  the  quickest  possible  time  considering 
the  deliveries  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  line.  Also  send 
by  one  express  company  rather  than  two,  or  one  freight 
road  rather  than  more,  since  collecting  damages  is 
that  much  more  simple.  Always  make  prompt  claims 
for  damages  for  rough  handling.  When  sending  to  com- 
mission men  freight  is  the  better  method  and  the  cheaper. 
When  sending  larger  lots  one  may  use  a  special  car. 
In  such  case  the  protection  from  heat  and  cold  is  aimed 
at.  In  summer  refrigerator  or  specially  iced  cars  are 
used,  while  in  winter  special  protection  or  heat  is  sup- 
plied. 

It  is  usual  in  expressing  eggs  to  charge  by  the  number 
of  cases  while  freight  goes  by  weight.  The  empty  cases  are 


^Iarketixg  the  Commercial  Egg  285 


ROSE   COMB   BROWN   LEGHORN, 
if   W.    W.   Kuip. 


286        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

returned  by  the  express  companies  at  a  charge  of  from 
five  to  ten  cents  apiece,  while  those  returned  by  freight 
are  again  charged  for  by  weight.  Whenever  the  return 
of  empty  cases  is  more  expensive  than  the  obtaining 
of  new  ones  notify  the  dealer  to  return  no  cases  or  ac- 
cept his  offer  without  cases  returned. 

The  Time,  Maimer  and  Place  to  Market  Eggs — One 
•can  always  depend  on  receiving  the  highest  returns 
during  the  season  of  scant  supply.  If  one  is  holding  eggs 
it  is  always  unwise  to  wait  to  market  them  until  there 
is  danger  of  a  downward  movement  due  to  earlier  mild 
weather  than  is  usual.  It  is  better  to  accept  a  reasonable 
profit  than  to  risk  a  lower  one.  If  one  is  selling  a  lim- 
ited output  directly  to  consumers  the  question  raised 
does  not  apply.  The  manner  of  marketing  depends  en- 
tirely upon  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  supply.  Di- 
rectly to  the  consumer,  thereby  eliminating  the  middle- 
man, gives  the  greatest  margin  of  profit.  Some  work  up 
a  route,  others  deem  that  too  expensive  or  distasteful 
and  prefer  to  express  directly  to  city  customers  once 
each  week.  These  customers  may  be  private  homes, 
hospitals,  clubs,  hotels,  dining  cars  and  other  organ- 
izations. Others  send  their  entire  output  to  a  city  re- 
tailer who  has  a  select  trade  to  supply  and  is  willing 
to  pay  a  premium  for  the  best  produce.  If  the  grade 
of  eggs  or  the  time  will  not  allow  of  better  methods 
one  can  always  send  directly  to  the  city  commission 
houses  and  get  good  and  quick  service.  The  shipper  in 
this  case  bears  the  cost  of  transportation  and  commis- 
sion. In  many  districts  there  is  an  egg  association  which 
handles  all  the  output  of  its  members  and  in  this  way 
better  returns  are  possible. 

The  question  of  what  city  to  choose  as  a  market  is 
important.      If   }0u   are   near   a   market   which   requires 


Marketing  the  Commercial  Egg  287 

a  white  egg  for  its  fancy  trade  conform  to  its  taste. 
If  a  brown  egg  do  likewise.  If  you  are  required  to  handle 
both  make  your  shipments  to  each  and  thus  obtain  high 
prices  on  your  entire  output.  New  York  insists  upon  a 
white  shell  as  strongly  as  Boston  calls  for  a  brown 
shelled  egg.  Study  your  markets.  Many  times  pro- 
duce will  bring  a  higher  price  in  a  smaller  city  whose 
merchants  are  dependent  upon  the  larger  city  for  their 
supplies.  This  is  especially  true  during  the  season  of 
low  production.  Easy  and  rapid  transportation  also  is 
to  be  considered.  These  questions  together  with  the 
grade  and  regularity  of  your  supply  will  determine  the 
best  time,  manner  and  city  for  marketing  eggs. 

Market  Quotations — It  is  advisable  to  keep  in  touch 
with  the  chief  markets  even  though  one  is  not  market- 
ing their  produce  in  the  open  markets.  Official  prices 
in  all  large  markets  are  fixed  by  a  committee  of  a  Cham- 
ber of  Commerce  who  base  their  prices  upon  the  supply 
and  demand  as  shown  by  the  day's  business.  Commis- 
sion men  and  the  daily  papers  send  out  these  quotations 
regularly  and  they  are  quite  reliable.  Many  commission 
men  also  send  out  private  quotations.  While  there  are 
some  dishonest  commission  men,  still  it  often  happens  that 
produce  is  sent  in  under  a  declining  market  and  by  the 
time  a  sale  is  made  the  market  is  lower  and  the  com- 
mission man  is  considered  dishonest.  Shippers  should 
also  acquaint  themselves  with  current  terms  and  phrases. 

Egg  Prices — Prices  depend  upon  the  supply  and  de- 
mand. The  time  of  very  cheap  eggs  or  very  high  eggs 
has  forever  passed  with  the  passing  of  the  cheap  beef 
and  the  erection  of  the  cold  storage  plants.  The  fonner 
having  disappeared  makes  eggs  more  in  demand,  the  lat- 
ter takes  the  surplus  of  the  over-production  period  and 
holds   it   for  the   season   of   scarcitv.     While   it   is  true 


288        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


>^ > 

L J 

-r^—X 1 

4- 1 

^_ g 


O      10      Q 
«0    K    K 


0"00      'OO'OO      "OOio^iiJO 


Marketing  the  Commercial  Egg  289 

that  the  price  of  eggs  varies  monthly  with  the  egg  pro- 
duction in  ahnost  exactly  the  same  ratio  as  the  produc- 
tion, still  the  price  does  not  go  as  low  in  the  spring 
or  as  high  in  the  winter  as  formerly.  Overpro- 
duction for  the  entire  year  can  never  exist.  Prices 
have  steadily  increased  for  years.  Another  strong  ad- 
vantage in  the  tgg  market  is  the  fact  that  the  market 
reports  covering  the  same  months  for  several  years 
will  show  similar  conditions  at  like  seasons  varied  only 
by  weather  conditions.  This  makes  for  regularity  in 
prices  and  easy  planning  for  the  future.  It  will  be  found 
that  March,  April  and  May  are  the  months  of  low  prices 
and  they  then  steadily  crowd  upward,  reaching  their 
highest  point  in  November,  December  and  January. 
The  season  of  low  prices  is  the  natural  breeding  season 
of  the  fowd,  hence  its  productiveness.  The  season  of 
high  prices   follows  molting  and  during  cold  weather. 

The  price  paid  for  the  egg  product  is  also  governed  by 
the  quality  of  the  eggs  as  well  as  by  the  attractiveness 
of  the  package.  From  dirty  to  fancy  is  always  one 
hundred  per  cent  gain  and  often  a  greater  gain.  The 
answer  to  the  question,  does  preparation  pay,  is  strongly 
affirmative. 

If  the  eggs  are  sold  to  a  commisision  house  the  day's 
demand  fixes  the  price.  If  sold  to  a  retailer  a  certain 
agreed  advance  over  the  market  quotations  is  usual. 
When  sending  to  private  customers  several  methods 
of  fixing  the  price  are  employed.  Some  make  a  contract 
for  a  stated  number  each  week  for  the  year  at  a  fixed  price 
per  dozen  for  the  entire  year.  Some  fix  the  price  at  a 
certain  per  cent  over  the  quotations  at  the  end  of 
each  week.  Others  agree  upon  two  prices  per  year, 
thus  equalizing  the  extremes.  Still  others  have  a  fixed 
running  scale  for  each  month  of  the  year  based  upon 


290        SciENCi-:  AND  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

the  averasi^e  current  price  plus  from  five  to  ten  cents 
per  dozen.  One  of  the  best  ways  is  to  make  a  monthly 
rate  based  upon  former  years  to  which  has  been  added 
an  agreed  advance.  In  this  way  there  can  be  no  mis- 
understandings or  delays  in  making  remittance. 


Chapter  XX. 

DISPOSING   OF   EGGS   AND    STOCK   FOR 
BREEDING    PURPOSES. 

Advertising — The  method  of  disposing  of  any  com- 
modity of  commerce  is  by  bringing  it  to  the  attention  of 
the  prospective  purchaser.  In  short,  by  advertising.  There 
are  many  wa}-s  of  doing  this,  chief  among  which  are 
constant  and  effective  advertising  in  pouUry  and  other 
periodicals,  exhibiting  at  the  various  fairs  and  winter 
shows,  placards  upon  all  packages  sent  out,  neat  and 
attractive  stationery,  business  cards  placed  to  advan- 
tage, invitations  to  visit  the  poultry  yard  and  by  per- 
sonal solicitation.  In  another  place  more  will  be  given 
upon  this  subject  of  advertising.  However,  none  of 
these  methods  will  be  available  long  unless  integrity 
follows  in  all  dealings. 

Contracts — In  disposing  of  an  article,  the  transac- 
tion does  not  cease  at  the  finding  of  the  prospective  buy- 
er. The  agreement  must  be  made  actually  or  by  im- 
plication. Actually  if  a  set  price  is  asked  and  agreed 
to  for  a  certain  article  of  a  stated  grade.  Impliedly 
if  in  the  usual  course  of  business  an  order  is  placed 
and  consideration  paid.  For  an  example  of  the  im- 
plied contract,  a  buyer  notices  an  advertisement  of  a 
setting  of  eggs  from  a  certain  variety  of  fowl  for  five 
dollars.  The  statement  contains  no  other  information. 
By  usage  there  is  also  implied  that  a  setting  of  eggs  at 
that  price  shall  be  of  the  very  best  quality,  that  they  shall 
be  reasonably  fertile,  that  they  shall  be  correctly  pre- 
291 


292        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

pared  for  shipment  and  that  they  shall  be  sent  at  the 
earliest  possible  moment  after  being  gathered.  The 
same  holds  true  in  other  dealings  in  the  world  of  com- 
merce. Therefore  every  action  of  the  vender  of  eggs 
and  stock  for  breeding  purposes  is  really  a  part  of  a  con- 
tract, express  or  implied.  If  more  would  realize  this, 
there  would  be  less  necessity  of  the  frequent  complaint 
of  unfair  treatment  among  poultrymen.  Upon  the 
other  hand,  it  is  just  as  much  the  duty  of  the  vendee 
to  receive  and  properly  handle  the  eggs  upon  arrival. 
There  is  much  responsibility  resting  upon  both  parties. 
When  a  statement  is  made  that  the  goods  advertised 
are  the  result  of  years  of  selective  breeding,  have  been 
carefully  pedigreed  and  trap-nested  each  year,  there 
is  something  serious  to  consider.  The  prospective  buy- 
er is  after  just  such  eggs  or  stock  and  for  him  to  get 
anything  else  is  the  highest  form  of  dishonesty,  since 
he  must  leave  it  to  the  honor  of  the  vender. 

Where  Sales  arc  Made — The  sales  of  many  breeders 
each  year  run  into  thousands  of  dollars  for  both 
stock  and  eggs.  They  go  everywhere  in  the  civilized 
world.  Breeders  buy  to  improve  their  strains,  some  to 
begin  a  strain,  others  for  exhibition  purposes.  Still 
others  for  the  mere  pleasure  in  owning  a  nearly  per- 
fect fowl.  Many  eggs  have  been  sold  to  owners  and 
manufacturers  of  incubators  and  brooders  in  order  that 
an  even  looking  hatch  may  better  advertise  their  wares. 
The  large  egg  and  poultry  farms  buy  thousands  of  dol- 
lars' worth  annually.  In  fact,  the  field  is  amazingly 
vast  when  looked  at  with  reference  to  the  volume  of  busi- 
ness each  year.  Many  breeders  sell  no  eggs  at  all, 
while  others  do  so  reluctantly  since  better  satisfaction 
generally  results  from  the  sale  of  stock  which  one  can 
see  and  appreciate.     Also  many  breeders  believe  there 


Eggs  and  Stock  for  Breeding  293 

is  more  money  in  the  sale  of  stock  than  of  eggs,  even  if 
the  unsatisfactory  side  of  the  latter  is  not  considered. 
Whenever  a  sale  is  made,  it  ought  to  be  that  the  buyer 
knows  the  stock  and  the  vender  so  that  those  unscru- 
pulous in  their  transactions  could  not  exist.  There  is 
some  satisfaction  in  the  knowledge  that  the  Govern- 
ment mail  service  is  weeding  out  the  worst  among 
them.  Many  send  stock  on  approval  if  the  purchaser 
remits  the  purchase  price  and  agrees  to  pay  the  charges 
both  ways  if  the  stock  is  not  accepted. 

The  Form  of  Package — The  stock  is  usually  shipped 
in  boxes  of  some  kind  unless  they  are  day-old  chicks 
for  which  note  the  chapter  upon  "  The  Day-old  Chick 
Industry."  Shipping  coops  vary  somewhat,  but  should 
be  large  enough  to  allow  standing  room  for  each  fowl 
without  being  crowded  either  in  height  or  in  head  room. 
Turkeys  require  a  higher  coop  than  chickens  or  ducks. 
Arrange  the  coop  so  that  no  direct  draught  will  reach 
them.  Many  shipping  coops  are  upon  the  market  at  very 
reasonable  prices.  Ventilation  is  usually  given  at  the 
top  and  also  near  the  top  at  the  sides  so  that  if  the  top 
should  be  covered  in  shipment  the  fowls  would  not 
smother.  A  front  of  wire  over  which  is  stretched  a 
thin  cloth  makes  a  good  ventilation. 

Eggs  are  shipped  in  a  number  of  different  kinds  of 
packages,  chief  among  which  are  baskets,  corrugated 
and  sectional  cardboard  boxes  and  wooden  boxes.  The 
aim  is  to  give  the  least  jar  possible  while  in  transit  and 
also  to  protect  them  from  possible  carelessness  by  the 
employees  of  the  various  public  transit  companies.  The 
baskets  may  or  may  not  have  handles,  which  are  conven- 
ient for  handling  yet  make  them  more  easily  knocked 
over.  Some  baskets  are  furnished  with  a  dome  cover, 
while  others  are  open  at  the  top.     All  boxes  should  be 


294        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

deep  enough  to  permit  of  proper  packing.  The  cor- 
rugated boxes  are  becoming  popular  as  they  are  yield- 
ing and  break  a  jar  more  readily  than  wooden  boxes 
with  cardboard  divisions.  All  packages  should  be 
broad  at  the  base  to  avoid  tilting  easily. 

Preparation  for  Shipment — All  fowls  to  be  forwarded 
need  attention  before  sending  them  on  their  journey. 
Just  before  they  are  to  be  cooped,  water  and  feed  plen- 
tifully. Place  a  little  hay  or  other  agreeable  litter  in 
the  shipping  coop  in  which  scatter  some  corn  and 
wheat  to  give  them  food  on  the  journey.  If  the  dis- 
tance is  long  and  the  weather  warm,  fasten  a  tin  cup 
upon  the  side  of  the  coop  and  put  upon  the  placard  a 
request  that  the  employees  of  the  transit  company  give 
some  water  while  enroute.  Nearly  any  one  is  humane 
enough  to  do  this,  even  though  not  stipulated  in  the 
contract.  It  is  always  better  to  make  a  special  con- 
tract to  this  effect,  thus  making  their  liability  a  motive 
since  extra  compensation  has  been  accepted  for  this 
duty. 

Eggs  need  special  attention  to  the  details  to  ensure 
uniform  success.  If  the  weather  is  cold  and  hence  ex- 
posure almost  certain,  a  lining  of  several  thicknesses 
of  paper  should  be  placed  in  every  package  regardless 
of  its  kind  or  the  distance  it  is  to  go.  In  the  bottom 
place  an  inch  or  more  of  excelsior  or  hay  and  a  sim- 
ilar protection  around  the  sides.  Next  choose  only 
such  eggs  as  are  proper  to  ship  for  incubation  purposes. 
Mark  them  in  any  way  desired  and  wrap  each  Qgg  in 
paper,  placing  them  small  end  down  in  a  layer  on  the 
excelsior  padding.  When  one  layer  is  completed  put 
in  another  pad  of  excelsior  or  hay  and  proceed  as  be- 
fore or  until  the  shipment  is  completed.  Upon  the  top 
layer  place  a  thick    padding    over    which    place   such 


Eggs  and  Stock  for  Breeding  295 

paper  protection  as  the  weather  may  demand.  Paper 
is  a  good  insulation  against  both  chilling  and  overheat- 
ing. If  a  compartment  box  is  used,  each  egg  should 
be  wrapped  with  soft  paper  before  placing  it  in  its  cell. 
Always  pack  eggs,  for  any  purpose,  small  end  down. 
All  boxes  ought  to  have  a  pad  on  the  top  and  bottom  to 
take  away  some  of  the  jarring  incident  to  shipping. 

Next,  fasten  the  covers  securely,  or,  in  the  case  of  bas- 
kets, sew  over  the  top  a  piece  of  strong  cloth  upon 
which  is  pasted  such  instructions  as  are  desired.  Any 
egg  package  should  bear  a  large  type  placard  calling 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  contents  were  eggs  for 
hatching  and  to  handle  with  care.  A  tag  bearing  the 
names  and  addresses  of  both  the  shipper  and  the  con- 
signee should  be  attached  to  the  package.  Some  paste 
strips  of  paper  over  the  cover  to  thwart  any  attempt 
at  purloining  the  contents. 

Modes  of  Shipment — The  usual  way  of  shipment  is 
by  express  in  the  United  States.  The  parcels  post  carry 
eggs  in  Europe  and  some  other  countries.  Freight  is 
used  but  very  rarely.  Rough  handling  is  often  the 
cause  of  poor  results,  the  eggs  being  fairly  addled  in 
transit.  If  a  stage  or  delivery  wagon  is  to  have  a  hand 
in  the  journey,  they  should  be  cautioned  about  the  ex- 
pected shipment  and  requested  to  give  the  package 
special  attention. 


Chapte  XXI. 
THE  DAY  OLD  CHICK  INDUSTRY. 

While  it  is  true  that  this  industry  was  quite  fully 
developed  centuries  ago  in  Egypt,  China  and  to  some 
extent  in  Japan,  and  again  is  now  well  developed  in 
England,  yet  in  America  it  is  in  its  infancy.  That  it  has 
come  to  stay  is  a  settled  fact  and  as  an  industry  has 
made  rapid  progress. 

The  advantages  of  this  industry  accrue  to  hoth  the 
buyer  and  the  seller.  The  buyer  often  wishes  to  raise 
chickens  but  has  no  incubator  and  perhaps  no  breeding 
pen  to  start  with.  Day  old  chicks  make  it  possible 
for  him  to  secure  a  nice  start  with  very  small  equip- 
ment. Again  the  lack  of  time  and  inexperience  often  com- 
bine to  the  same  end.  Many  breeders  are  heavy  buyers 
as  well  as  are  egg  farms  of  large  capacity.  The  seller 
has  this  extra  outlet  for  his  surplus  egg  production  and 
often  has  an  incubator  capacity  larger  than  a  brood- 
ing capacity.  The  same  outlet  for  rascality  exists  in  this 
industry  as  with  the  selling  of  eggs  and  one  must  always 
be  cautious  when  purchasing  to  know  the  character  and 
methods  of  the  advertiser.  It  is  a  known  fact  that 
many  day  old  chick  hatcheries  do  not  own  a  chicken 
and  buy  all  their  eggs  from  farmers  and  other  sources. 
Such  hatcheries  evidently  would  need  to  exercise  much 
care  and  judgment  in  their  securing  of  eggs  to  give 
satisfaction  to  any  customer.  One  advantage  to  the 
buyer  is  that  he  can  count  upon  a  certain  number  of 
296 


Day  Old  Chick  Industry  297 

chicks,  while  in  buying  eggs  he  must  take  into  account 
many  more  unknown  factors. 

In  purchasing  day  old  chicks  the  vigor  and  quality 
of  the  foundation  stock,  the  care  and  proper  incubation 
of  the  eggs  and  the  correct  preparation  of  the  chicks 
for  shipment  are  all  factors  beyond  the  control  of  the 
buyer.  The  integrity  of  the  seller  must  be  trusted.  At  the 
same  time  upon  arrival  proper  care  and  brooding  is  just 
as  essential  and  if  the  chicks  arrive  in  lively  condition  a 
failure  to  rear  them  may  be  due  entirely  to  their  brood- 
ing. 

Orders  are  secured  almost  entirely  by  the  various 
methods  of  advertising  employed  and  it  is  always  best  to 
place  an  order  early  in  the  season  before  other  orders 
crowd  one  into  a  later  part  of  the  hatching  season. 

The  price  secured  for  day  old  chicks  varies  from  ten 
cents  to  twenty-five  dollars  apiece,  depending  entirely 
upon  the  quality  and  quantity  of  chicks  ordered.  The 
ordinary  farm  or  utility  stock  is  often  sold  as  low  as 
ten  cents,  while  chicks  from  certain  strains  or  from  a 
certain  standard  range  higher.  Twenty-five  cents  apiece 
buys  fair  stock  unless  the  chicks  must  meet  certain  higher 
requirements.  Considering  the  cost  of  eggs  and  the 
average  percentage  of  incubation  it  would  seem  fair  that 
the  charge  should  be  at  least  two  or  three  times  the  cost 
of  the  same  number  of  eggs  of  like  breeding 

The  shipments  of  chicks  are  most  easily  made  directly 
from  the  incubator  since  nature  has  supplied  them  with 
enough  nourishment  to  last  them  for  two  or  three  days 
or  even  longer  if  necessary  without  resulting  injury. 
Express  is  the  only  means  employed  at  present  in  the 
United  States  and  has  been  found  very  satisfactory  ex- 
cept in  isolated  cases.  The  express  employees  have  been 
very  considerate  of  the  wee  travelers  whose  welfare  was 


298        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

entrusted  to  their  care.  During  transit  they  develop  into 
a  robust,  hungry  brood  ready  for  their  new  foster  home. 

The  package  usually  employed  is  a  basket  or  box 
carefully  lined  and  having  a  prepared  cover,  which  also 
contains  a  lining  in  certain  seasons.  If  a  basket  be  em- 
ployed it  may  be  any  kind  so  long  as  its  capacity  is  sufifi- 
cient  and  it  has  a  broad  base  to  avoid  tilting  or  turning. 
The  boxes  used  vary  from  four  inches  to  eight  inches 
deep  and  of  capacity  sufificient  to  not  overcrowd  the 
chicks.  Not  more  than  fifty  chicks  should  be  placed  in 
any  one  compartment.  To  give  specific  directions 
is  difficult  as  the  number  of  chicks,  the  season  and 
the  distance  to  be  shipped  are  all  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. In  lining  the  package  with  burlap,  cheese- 
cloth or  other  material  one  must  be  governed  by  good 
judgment.  The  aim  is  warmth,  ventilation,  and  comfort. 
It  is  evident  that  for  early  shipments  the  sides  should 
be  padded  well  and  some  protection  placed  over  the  top 
for  both  warmth  and  ventilation,  while  for  a  mid-sum- 
mer shipment,  ventilation  without  draughts  is  the  sole 
aim.  The  body  heat  of  the  chicks  in  either  case  must  pro- 
vide warmth.  The  ventilation  therefore  must  fit  the  weath- 
er to  avoid  chilling  or  smothering.  An  easy  package  to 
handle  is  also  aimed  at  yet  one  not  subject  to  easy  acci- 
dent. Upon  the  bottom  of  any  package  should  be  scat- 
tered some  soft  clean  chaff.  Do  not  put  feed  of  any 
kind  in  the  package.  Each  package  should  be  properly 
placarded  with  some  wording  to  explain  the  contents 
and  asking  care  in  handling  to  keep  out  of  the  cold  and 
draughts  and  that  no  food  or  water  he  given.  Many  kind 
hearted  messangers  are  prone  to  share  their  lunch  with 
the  chicks  to  the  injury  of  the  latter. 

The  loss  is  very  light  in  shipping  day  old  chicks  con- 
sidering they  have  been  sent  as  far  as  two  thousand  miles 


Day  Old  Chick  Industry  299 

with  the  loss  of  only  a  very  few.  They  make  from 
three  to  four  hundred  miles  a  day  and  a  three  days' 
journey  is  really  quite  enough.  Most  shippers  put  one 
or  two  extra  in  the  package  to  make  up  for  the  usual 
one  to  two  per  cent  loss. 

Before  arrival  the  buyer  should  have  received  notice 
of  shipment  from  the  sender  so  that  the  express  could  be 
delivered  at  once  upon  reaching  its  destination.  A 
brooder  should  be  fully  ready  to  receive  the  youngsters 
or  if  a  broody  hen  is  to  be  used  she  should  be  dusted 
and  prepared.  Do  not  trust  the  hen  to  own  them  without 
watching  her  for  quite  a  period.  It  is  better  to  have  more 
than  the  number  of  hens  actually  needed,  then  one  may 
discard  the  least  motherly  of  the  number.  Caution 
is  essential  that  food  and  water  be  given  them  in  small 
quantities  but  rather  often  upon  their  arrival.  More 
young  chicks  are  killed  by  overkindness  than  otherwise. 

This  industry  is  being  also  applied  to  ducklings  and 
the  young  of  other  fowls.     The  same  principles  apply. 


Chapter  XXII, 

PREPARING  AND  MARKETING  POULTRY  AND 
ITS  BY-PRODUCTS. 

General. 

In  other  chapters  have  been  discussed  the  placing  of 
the  commercial  egg  upon  the  market,  the  selling  of  eggs 
and  stock  for  breeding  purposes  and  the  disposal  of  day- 
old  chicks.  In  this  chapter  will  be  taken  up  the  various 
phases  of  the  preparation  and  marketing  of  poultry  and 
the  by-products  not  treated  as  above  noted. 

The  rearing  of  poultry  is  an  important  step,  but  the 
successful  sale  of  that  poultry  for  the  highest  possible 
price  is  quite  another  thing.  The  expert  in  the  prepar- 
ation and  marketing  of  the  finished  product  must  not 
only  be  skillful  in  its  preparation  but  he  must  know  when 
and  where  to  obtain  prices  which  will  insure  a  financial 
profit.  The  producing,  the  collecting  of  the  poultry  and 
its  products,  its  preparation  and  its  marketing  are  not 
commonly  in  the  same  management,  but  where  they  are 
well  combined  in  one  person  there  should  result  the  high- 
est possible  margin  of  profit.  Immense  plants  have  been 
constructed  throughout  the  United  States  by  certain 
large  firms  who  collect  and  prepare  poultry  products  for 
market.  These  firms  handle  a  large  proportion  of  all 
poultry  produced  in  the  vicinity  in  which  they  are 
located. 

The  methods  employed  by  the  great  packing  and  pre- 
serving firms  in  Europe  and  America  will  not  be  taken 
up  in  this  work  since  it  would  be  highly  impracticable. 
300 


Preparing  and  Marketing  Poultry  301 

Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  preserving  of  poultry  products, 
even  to  the  whole  cooked  chicken  in  glass  containers, 
is  a  widespread  industry.  We  of  America,  perhaps,  are 
not  quite  the  equal  of  our  English  cousins  in  that 
respect.  Yet  a  wonderful  industry  is  being  built  up  in 
America,  some  of  which  product  is  finding  its  way  into 
foreign  markets. 

Even  with  the  advent  of  rapid  transportation  and 
specially-constructed  poultry  cars  for  both  dressed  and 
live  stock,  the  increased  production  has  not  kept  pace 
with  the  demand.  The  public  appreciates  good  poultry 
and  one  of  the  most  important  factors  behind  this  increas- 
ing demand  is  the  exhibit  of  poultry  products  held  in 
various  cities  each  year.  The  more  the  public  sees  of 
these  attractive  products  the  greater  is  the  demand  cre- 
ated. Let  not  the  producer  forget  the  value  of  other 
advertising  when  seeking  to  dispose  of  his  products. 
Classes  of  Poultry  Products. 

Among  the  more  common  products  of  poultry  may  be 
named  the  following.  The  seasons  named  are  the  natural 
seasons  without  regard  to  the  effect  of  cold  storage  upon 
their  extension.  However,  prices  are  affected  to  a  large 
extent  by  cold  storage.  The  beginning  of  the  season 
for  each  class  usually  pays  the  highest  price. 

Broilers — Squab  broilers  are  small  chickens  weighing 
from  three-fourths  of  a  pound  to  a  pound  and  one-half. 
They  are  also  known  as  club-house  or  individual  broil- 
ers. They  are  in  demand  from  January  to  May.  Spring 
broilers  are  two-pound  fowls  and  are  chiefly  in  demand 
from  January  to  Jul}-. 

Fries — Young  chickens  ranging  from  two  to  three  and 
one-half  pounds  are  termed  fries  and  are  not  strong  in 
price.  Late  spring  and  summer  find  them  quoted  most 
frequently. 


302        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Roasters — Small  and  large  roasters  weigh  from  three 
to  five  and  from  eight  to  twelve  pounds,  respectively. 
The  fall,  winter  and  spring  find  them  in  demand.  Soft 
roasters  and  roasters  are  the  same  except  that  a  special 
fattening  process  is  usually  thought  of  in  connection  with 
the  term  "  soft  roaster." 

Caf^ons — Capons  are  castrated  cockerels.  They  grow 
to  a  large  size,  retain  a  tender,  juicy  flesh,  fatten  evenly 
and  well,  bringing  an  advanced  price.  The  season  be- 
gins in  December  and  lasts  well  into  the  summer.  They 
are  dressed  in  a  distinctive  manner,  the  feathers  being 
left  upon  the  neck,  wings,  rump  and  thigh.  The  head 
and  feet  are  also  left,  since  the  head  is  a  distinguishing 
mark. 

Folds  and  Roosters — All  through  the  year  a  steady 
demand  is  kept  supplied  by  shipments  of  fow'ls  of  all 
ages,  sizes  and  breeds.  The  hens  are  sold  separately 
from  the  cocks  in  all  markets.  The  highest  markets  are 
usually  at  the  seasons  of  the  Jewish  holidays. 

Turkeys — While  the  turkey  is  thought  of  in  connec- 
tion with  the  holidays,  at  which  time  it  brings  the  highest 
price,  yet  other  times  of  the  year  find  it  in  the  market. 

Ducks  and  Geese — All  through  the  summer  and  fall 
green  ducks  and  geese  are  in  demand,  while  adult  stock 
is  salable  during  the  entire  year.  The  late  summer  finds 
a  brisk  market. 

Squabs — The  fall  and  winter  find  the  highest  prices  in 
squabs.  The  demand  is  continuous  throughout  the  year. 
The  market  is  desirous  that  squabs  be  plump,  full- 
breasted  and  wdiite-fleshed.  As  with  all  other  stock  the 
best  grade  brings  the  highest  price.  This  industry  is 
growing  rapidly. 

Guinea  Foxi'Is  and  Game  Birds — Tn  some  markets 
there  is  a  growing  demand  for  these  fowls,  both  young 


Preparing  and  Marketing  Poultry  303 

and  adult.  They  are  usually  displayed  with  all  the 
feathers  left  on. 

Feathers — All  kinds  of  feathers  are  salable.  They 
should  be  well  cured  by  means  of  drying-  racks  or  thin 
sacks,  being  in  the  air  and  sun.  Special  drying  devices 
with  artificial  heat  are  used  in  larger  plants. 

They  bring  good  prices,  depending  upon  the  kind, 
color,  quality  and  purposes  for  which  they  are  to  be 
used.  They  are  used  for  bedding,  pillows,  novelties,  mil- 
linery goods,  clothing  ornaments,  dusters,  feather-bone 
goods,  artificial  bait  and  countless  other  uses.  Dry- 
plucked  feathers  command  the  best  prices.  They  must 
be  well  graded  and  cured  to  obtain  the  top  quotations. 

Blood — Evaporated  or  dried  blood  forms  a  valuable 
by-product  in  all  large  packing  plants.  The  fresh  blood 
from  local  killing  would  be  valuable  for  growing  and 
laying  stock  as  an  ingredient  in  a  mash. 

Offal — In  all  packing  plants  certain  parts  that  are  not 
available  for  the  manufacture  of  soup,  bone  or  meat 
scrap,  are  dried  and  ground  into  fertilizer  for  the  en- 
richment of  land.  No  small  part  is  wasted  or  lost  in 
this  striving  for  profits. 

Droppings — The  manure  of  fowls  is  very  rich  for 
fertilizing  ground.  Market  gardeners  who  understand 
its  value  are  willing  to  pay  twenty-five  cents  per  bushel 
for  this  by-product.  Tanneries  use  it  whenever  avail- 
able, paying  therefor  as  high  as  one  dollar  per  barrel  for 
it  where  unmixed  with  absorbents  or  other  foreign  mat- 
ter. 

Preparation  for  Market. 

For  the  purposes  of  this  chapter  it  is  assumed  that  the 
seller  has  possession  of  the  poultry  products  and  that 


304        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

they  are  in  a  marketable  condition.  Poorly  raised  or 
poorly  bred  poultry  is  not  profitable  to  anybody  or  in 
any  market.  On  the  other  hand  a  good  quality  of  poul- 
try is  both  attractive  and  profitable.  In  the  face  of  these 
facts  the  American  poultry  producers  are  awakening  to 
the  realization  of  the  loss  they  incur  by  raising  other 
than  pure-bred  stock.  Beyond  this  they  are  also  real- 
izing the  benefits  of  the  proper  fattening  and  cram- 
ming processes. 

Killing — Before  any  fowl  is  killed  and  dressed  it 
should  be  kept  without  food  for  a  period  of  from  twelve 
to  twenty-four  hours  to  permit  of  the  complete  clearance 
of  the  crop  and  intestinal  tracts.  Water  should  be  given 
freely  to  assist  in  this  result  as  well  as  to  keep  the  fowl 
comfortable  and  insure  a  minimum  shrinkage.  Food  left 
in  the  crop  soon  sours,  thus  tainting  the  dressed  prod- 
uct and  impairing  its  keeping  qualities. 

There  are  different  methods  of  killing,  chief  among 
which  are  "  sticking  "  and  dislocating  the  neck.  Each 
aims  at  thorough  bleeding,  speedy  unconsciousness  and 
relaxation.  The  former  is  learned  only  by  practice  on 
live  fowls.  The  fowl  is  usually  hung  by  the  feet  by 
means  of  a  looped  cord.  The  bird  should  hang  about 
even  with  the  elbows.  The  head  is  held  in  the  left  hand, 
comb  downward,  and  the  bill  is  opened  to  expose  to 
view  the  slit  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  With  a  pointed 
double-edged  killing-knife  in  the  right  hand,  insert  it 
in  the  slit  and  thrust  it  backward  toward  a  point  directly 
back  of  the  eyes.  When  correctly  done  the  brain  is 
pierced  and  there  will  result  a  convulsive  struggle,  shud- 
der or  "  squawk."  The  knife  should  now  be  given  a 
quick  twist  half  way  round  and  as  it  is  withdrawn  the 
arteries  across  the  roof  of  the  mouth  on  either  side  will 
be  severed  and  bleeding  will  be  free  and  effectual.     A 


Preparing  and  Marketing  Poultry  305 

small  pail  may  be  suspended  from  the  bird's  lower  man- 
dible or  jaw  to  catch  the  blood.  This  is  accomplished 
by  means  of  a  sharp  hook  fastened  to  the  bail  of  the 
receptacle.  It  saves  the  blood  and  keeps  it  away  from 
the  operator.  Most  operators  sever  the  arteries  before 
piercing  the  brain.  Others  sever  the  arteries,  then  stun 
the  bird  with  a  sharp  blow  upon  the  back  of  its  head, 
using  a  short  heavy  club.  Piercing  the  brain  first  seems 
the  better  of  the  two  methods,  although  the  bleeding 
may  not  be  quite  so  free. 

Killing  by  dislocating  the  neck  is  accomplished  as  fol- 
lows :  Hold  the  legs  and  wings  of  the  fowl  with  the 
left  hand.  Grasp  the  neck  between  the  first  and  second 
fingers  of  the  right  hand  with  the  head  lying  in  the  palm 
of  the  hand.  Bend  the  fowls  head  backward  as  far  as 
possible,  giving  it  a  sudden  jerk  or  pull  downward.  The 
head  will  separate  readily  from  the  neck  and  should 
be  pulled  nearly  two  inches  from  the  neck  to  allow  suf- 
ficient space  for  the  blood  to  empty.  xA-t  the  time  the 
head  is  removed  the  blood  comes  away  also.  The  advan- 
tages claimed  for  this  method  are  cleanliness  in  dress- 
ing, less  loss  of  weight  and  that  germs  cannot  enter  the 
circulatory  system.  For  cold  storage  this  method  is  not 
recommended,  since  the  dislocation  of  the  neck  lessons 
the  salability  of  the  fowls. 

Plucking — The  two  methods  employed  are  "  dry  pick- 
ing "  and  "  scalding."  The  former  is  the  preferable  one 
and  begins  at  once  after  "  sticking."  ]\Ir.  F.  H.  Stan- 
burn,  in  a  Storrs'  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bul- 
letin, gives  an  excellent  description  of  dry  plucking 
which  we  quote : 

Dry  picking  usually  gives  the  beginner  considerable 
trouble.  Cramped  fingers,  backache,  and  discouragement 
are  merely  incidentals.  But  every  market  poultryman 
should  learn  the  process,  and  this  comes  only  by  practice. 


306        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

After  a  time  a  certain  "  knack "  is  acquired,  and  the  work 
becomes  easy.  Much  of  the  success  of  dry  picking  depends 
upon  how  the  bird  has  been  killed.  If  properly  stuck  in  the 
brain  or  struck  with  the  club,  the  feathers  may  be  removed 
with  comparative  ease.  Otherwise  they  will  frequently  act 
as  if  clinched  under  the  skin.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that 
a  bird  will  not  be  torn  occasionally.  The  most  expert 
pickers  have  frequent  accidents  of  this  kind,  as  often  a  bird 
will  be  picking  easily  and  smoothly,  and  then  for  some  un- 
explainable  reason  the  skin  will  tear.  The  best  thing  to  do, 
then,  is  to  work  carefully  when  picking  the  portions  of  the 
body  most  liable  to  tear,  and  hurry  on  the  remainder. 

Have  the  bird  hung  at  a  convenient  height,  neither  too 
high  nor  too  low,  as  either  height  becomes  tiresome  before 
many  birds  have  been  dressed.  Most  pickers  prefer  to  work 
with  the  bird  about  opposite  the  elbows.  Begin  to  pick 
immediately  after  the  bird  has  been  stuck,  as  the  feathers 
come  easier  while  the  blood  is  flowing.  Operators  differ  in 
their  ideas  as  to  which  portions  of  the  body  should  be 
plucked  first,  but  many  experts  work  as  follows:  First, 
the  coarse  feathers  of  the  wings  are  removed,  one  sweeping 
motion  of  the  hand  usually  being  sufficient  for  each  wing. 
The  tail  feathers  are  next  snapped  out.  As  the  breast  is 
the  most  tender  part  and  the  one  most  easily  torn,  it  is 
next  attacked.  On  each  side  of  the  breast  bone  lies  a  nar- 
row strip  differing  in  appearance  from  the  rest  of  the  breast, 
and  these  are  extremely  tender.  After  the  feathers  have 
been  removed  from  them,  the  rest  of  the  breast  can  be 
picked  without  great  trouble.  Next  come  the  thighs,  and 
here,  too,  are  found  some  small  tender  spots  which  must 
receive  careful  treatment.  The  wings  follow  next  in  order, 
and  they  usually  cause  no  trouble  except  at  the  joints. 
Finally  the  back  is  stripped,  and  the  carcass  is  ready  for 
pin-feathering.  It  is  a  mistake  to  grasp  a  handful  of  the 
body  feathers  and  attempt  to  remove  them  with  one  pull, 
as  a  tear  usually  results.  The  same  feathers  can  be  removed 
without  danger  by  a  rolling  motion  of  the  hand  which  is 
hard  to  describe,  but  which  once  learned  is  never  forgotten. 
A  dish  of  water  in  which  to  dip  the  hand  is  a  great  con- 
venience to  the  picker,  as  damp  fingers  give  a  much  better 
grip  on   the  feathers. 


Preparing  and  AIarketing  Poultry  307 

During  the  process  of  picking,  the  worthless  feathers 
should  be  discarded  by  being  thrown  upon  the  floor,  while 
all  that  are  salable  should  be  caught  in  a  barrel  or  box  di- 
rectly beneath  the  bird  and  the  hands  of  the  picker.  This 
is  very  convenient,  and  the  danger  of  soiling  the  feathers 
with  blood  is  eliminated  by  the  use  of  the  pail  as  described 
above. 

A  common  stool  can  be  used  while  working  at  birds  hung 
up  by  the  feet,  if  it  is  considered  desirable  to  sit  while  pick- 
ing. If  this  is  unsatisfactory,  proceed  as  follows:  Kill  the 
bird  as  directed  above,  and  take  the  body  across  the  knees, 
holding  the  head  firmly  between  the  right  knee  and  the 
feather-box,  the  latter  being  knee-high.  Use  the  left  hand 
to  hold  the  body,  turning  it  in  the  most  convenient  posi- 
tion, and  with  the  right  remove  the  feathers.  Most  rapid 
pickers  prefer  to  stand  while  at  work,  as  both  hands  can 
be  used  to  better  advantage. 

As  before  stated,  the  appearance  of  the  carcass  in  great 
measure  determines  its  value,  and  hence  careful  pin-feather- 
ing becomes  important.  Unless  the  stubs  and  pin-feathers 
are  practically  all  removed,  the  carcass  will  be  anything  but 
attractive.  A  short,  dull  knife  is  a  great  aid  while  removing 
"  stubs  "  and  "  pins." 

After  the  picking  is  finished  the  birds  may  either  go  into 
the  cooling  tank  or  be  hung  up  to  cool,  according  to  the 
weather  and  the  way  in  which  they  are  to  be  packed  for 
shipment. 

The  scalding  process  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  the  dry 
picking,  but  it  is  quicker.  The  water  should  be  just  be- 
low the  boiling  point.  If  the  water  is  too  hot  or  the 
fowl  left  in  too  long  the  skin  will  become  cooked.  If 
the  water  is  not  hot  enough  the  feathers  will  not  pluck 
well,  the  skin  will  tear,  while  tender  surfaces  will  peel 
and  discolor.  When  the  head  and  feet  are  to  remain  on 
the  fowl  they  must  be  kept  out  of  the  water  or  they 
will  lose  their  natural  color.  If  the  "  scald  "  is  correct 
the  feathers  will  loosen  up  because  of  the  contraction  of 
the  skin  and  plucking  will  be  easy.     Immerse  the  fowl 


308        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

quickly,  withdraw  to  the  air,  reverse  its  position  and 
immerse  again.  Pick  as  in  dry  pkicking.  After  picking 
dip  in  hot  water  about  twelve  seconds,  then  put  into  cold 
water.  This  treatment  will  insure  plumper  birds  and 
better  keeping  qualities.  Dealers  claim  longer  keeping 
qualities  for  the  dry-picked  fowl. 

All  fowls  will  be  plucked  clean  except  as  special  mar- 
kets require  certain  forms  of  plucking.  In  plucking 
capons  feathers  are  left  upon  the  neck,  wings,  rump  and 
thigh.  Turkeys  are  clean-plucked  for  some  markets  and 
in  others  feathers  are  left  upon  the  neck,  first  joint  of 
the  wings  and  rump.  Feathers  are  left  upon  the  lower 
joint  of  the  wings  and  a  part  of  the  neck  in  ducks  and 
geese. 

Dressing — After  whatever  plucking  has  been  done  to 
conform  to  the  kind  of  fowl  and  the  demands  of  the 
market  to  be  emplo}'ed  the  next  step  is  to  draw  the  fowl 
if  drawing  is  required.  This  is  accomplished  by  making 
a  slit  from  near  the  end  of  the  keelbone  toward  the  vent 
to  admit  about  two  fingers.  Carefully  cut  around  the 
vent  but  do  not  touch  the  intestines  in  so  cutting.  Insert 
the  fingers,  detaching  and  drawing  out  the  gizzard  and 
other  organs.  By  severing  the  gullet  and  windpipe  at 
the  throat  the  crop  can  usually  be  drawn  without  opening 
the  breast.  Replace  the  giblets.  Doubtless  a  majority 
of  all  fowls  dressed  and  marketed  are  sold  undrawn  with 
the  feet  and  head  intact.  The  reason  for  the  trade  ask- 
ing for  undrawn  poultry  lies  in  the  claim  that  the  inci- 
sion admits  molds  and  other  germs  where  they  multiply 
rapidly,  often  causing  a  fowl  to  be  unfit  for  food  which 
otherwise  looks  marketable.  Never  singe  a  fowl  intended 
for  market.  The  heat  injures  the  skin  and  brings  out 
oils,  giving  an  unsightly  appearance. 

If  the  head  and  feet  are  to  be  removed  sever  the  neck 


Preparing  and  Marketing  Poultry  309 


Courtesy  of  Klee  Bros. 


LIGHT   BRAHMA. 


310        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

close  to  the  head.  Do  not  cut  the  windpipe  or  gullet,  but 
draw  them  out  while  attached  to  the  head.  Push  back 
the  skin  and  remove  a  section  of  the  neck-bone,  wash 
off  any  blood  and  replace  the  skin,  tying  well  with  a 
cord.  Next  cut  off  the  shanks,  pulling  out  the  sinews 
which  run  into  the  drumstick  by  means  of  a  hook  upon 
the  wall  over  which  is  hung  the  sinew  of  the  shank  while 
the  operator  pulls  away  the  bird. 

If  the  giblets  have  been  replaced  draw  the  drumsticks 
down  and  tie  firmly.  Fold  the  wings  behind  the  back. 
One  will  find  the  fowl  attractive  and  appearing  plump 
and  chunky. 

The  head  and  feet  are  left  attached  to  a  capon  since 
the  former  is  one  of  its  distinguishing  features. 

Shaping — Some  American  and  nearly  all  European 
markets  prefer  the  bodies  of  dressed  poultry  to  be  shaped. 
This  is  accomplished  by  manipulation  or  by  a  shaping- 
board.  Where  manipulation  is  employed  a  smooth 
wooden  paddle  is  used  to  break  down  the  point  of  the 
breast-bone,  after  which  the  muscles  of  the  breast  are 
worked  forward  by  the  thumbs,  giving  a  round  and 
plump  appearance  to  the  carcass.  A  shaping  board  is 
made  by  nailing  two  six-inch  boards  together  lengthwise 
to  form  slightly  less  than  a  right  angle.  Use  the  wide 
side  for  the  back,  the  narrower  for  a  base  or  front  board. 
Grade  the  fowls  as  to  size  and  before  they  are  cooled 
place  them  side  by  side,  breast  down,  on  the  front  board. 
The  head  and  neck  will  hang  down  over  the  front  edge 
while  the  rear  end  of  each  body  will  press  against  the 
backboard.  Upon  each  trough  or  row  of  fowls  place  a 
smooth  board  some  three  or  four  inches  wide,  so  that  it 
will  come  just  back  of  the  wings.  On  this  weight-board 
place  enough  glazed  bricks  or  other  weights  to  press  the 
fowls  compactly  together.     A  brick  to  hold  in  position 


Preparing  and  ^Marketing  Poultry  311 

the  last  bird  placed  upon  the  shaper  is  handy.  Remove 
the  fowls  when  cool  and  rigid.  They  should  appear 
blocky  and  plump.  Variations  in  methods  will  be  found 
in  different  countries. 

Cooling — After  plucking,  dressing  and  shaping  fowls 
are  plunged  into  ice  water  or  hung  in  a  cooler  to  chill 
them  before  packing.  If  it  is  cold  weather  an  open  room 
may  do.  Sudden  chilling  contracts  the  skin  and  gives 
them  a  smoother  appearance  as  well  as  makes  them  look 
plump.  It  also  insures  safety  in  long-distance  shipments 
as  well  as  makes  them  keep  better  in  cold  storage.  Never 
cool  or  dry  birds  in  a  draught,  since  they  will  show  that 
they  were  "  wind-dried."  Unless  packed  in  ice  all  fowls 
must  be  dry  before  shipping.  Animal  heat  must  be  en- 
tirely absent  before  packing.  Never  let  poultry  freeze 
unless  it  is  to  be  kept  and  later  sold  as  frozen  stuff. 
Thawing  injures  the  quality  of  meats  and  they  easily 
decay.     Frozen  birds  should  thaw  out  slowly. 

Grading — Before  packing  all  poultry  products  should 
be  sorted  according  to  age,  size,  color  and  condition. 
This  results  in  uniiorn'.ity  in  quality  and  appearance. 
Better  prices  will  be  obtained  for  all  grades.  This  applies 
equally  to  live  or  dressed  stock  or  the  by-products  of 
poultry. 

Inspection — While  grading  inspect  each  fowl  or  prod- 
uct carefully.  See  that  no  blood  clots  are  visible  or  are 
collected  in  the  mouth.  Wash  the  head  and  feet  to  in- 
sure a  fresh  appearance.  Sew  up  any  tears  in  the  skin 
with  fine  white  thread  and  a  curved  needle.  Where 
bruises  or  dark  places  occur  they  may  be  improved  by 
washing  well  with  soap  and  water.  Note  that  all  fowls 
are  uniformily  plucked  and  dressed.  In  the  handling  of 
feathers  watch  the  sorting  into  grades  while  plucking. 

Packing  and  Packages — After  grading  and  inspecting 


312        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

the  packing-  may  proceed.  If  the  package  is  superior  and 
attractive  the  prospective  purchaser  is  ahnost  justified  in 
feehng  that  the  contents  are  also  of  a  high  grade.  If 
the  interior  and  contents  justify  that  feehng  a  neat  mar- 
gin of  profit  is  assured. 

The  package  for  dressed  fowl  should  always  be  neat, 
clean  and  convenient  to  handle.  Pasteboard  boxes  for 
one  or  more  birds  are  used,  which  are  made  to  fit  into  a 
larger  wooden  case  as  does  an  egg  carton.  Boxes  hold- 
ing one-half  and  one-dozen  lots  are  often  used  and  may 
be  purchased  for  the  purpose.  Barrels  of  various  sizes 
are  popular  when  shipping  with  ice.  Larger  boxes  are 
also  employed  when  ice  is  used.  Both  boxes  and  barrels 
are  iced  above  and  below  with  layers  between  the  fowls 
in  hot  weather.  Burlap  covers  over  each  insure  proper 
handling  en  route.  All  barrels  and  boxes  should  be  of 
some  material  which  will  not  taint  the  flesh.  For  this 
reason  cedar  is  worthless  for  box  material.  The  stand- 
ard-sized boxes  of  the  proper  material  for  any  given  pur- 
pose may  always  be  ordered  through  a  commission  mer- 
chant. 

Each  package  should  be  lined  with  fresh  parchment 
paper.  Some  wrap  each  fowl  with  waxed  paper.  If  they 
have  been  bled  it  is  well  to  wrap  the  head  of  each  fowl 
with  paper  so  that  no  blood  may  run  from  the  mouth 
and  soil  the  contents  of  the  package.  When  fowls  are 
packed  in  boxes  they  should  be  arranged  with  their 
breasts  up,  with  the  heads  of  the  first  row  laid  straight 
out  on  the  bottom,  and  the  backs  of  the  next  row  are 
laid  against  them.  If  a  deep  box  repeat  for  each  layer, 
laying  paper  between  each. 

Live  fowls  should  be  shipped  by  the  best  methods 
available.  The  most  common  package  is  by  crate  where 
limited  numbers  are  shipped.    Crates  should  be  comfort- 


Preparing  and  Marketing  Poultry  313 

able  for  the  fowls,  not  too  large  to  handle  easily  and  as 
light  of  weight  as  is  consistent  with  durability.  If  too 
long  they  should  be  divided  to  avoid  danger  of  piling 
and  suffocating  through  rough  handling  en  route.  A 
crate  holding  ten  to  fifteen  matured  chickens  or  eight  to 
ten  turkeys  is  large  enough.  The  average  crate  is  four 
feet  long,  one  foot  high  and  thirty  inches  wide,  and  cor- 
respondingly high  for  other  fowls.  Uniformity  in  grad- 
ing live  stock  is  also  essential.  Cars  are  especially  built 
for  shipping  live  poultry  which  are  both  convenient  and 
comfortable  for  the  birds.  They  are  divided  into  sec- 
tions and  also  into  coops  holding  about  three  dozen  fowls 
each.  They  may  be  arranged  for  any  kind  of  poultry. 
They  have  storage  and  feeding  arrangements  for  both 
food  and  water  en  route.  A^entilation  is  provided  for. 
Shrinkage  in  transit  is  not  large  and  'sometimes  not 
appreciable  if  weather  conditions  are  favorable. 

Feathers  are  usually  shipped  in  light  wooden  cases  or 
burlap  sacks  and  shipped  by  freight.  Dried  blood  is 
shipped  in  sacks.  Droppings  when  shipped  are  some- 
times placed  in  sacks  and  sometimes  in  barrels. 

Each  package  should  be  plainly  stenciled  with  the 
name  of  the  shipper  and  the  consignee  together  with  the 
weight  and  quantity  of  the  contents  if  desired.  An  advice 
by  mail  to  the  consignee  will  insure  prompt  attention  and 
often  an  advantageous  sale. 

Disposing  of  the  Prepared  Product. 

The  disposition  of  the  prepared  product  is  made  much 
easier  by  an  attractive  package.  One  satisfied  customer 
gets  another.  Xo  salesman  can  plead  more  eloquently 
than  a  neat,  clean  article  of  high  quality.  But  first  this 
article  must  be  seen  to  be  appreciated,  therefore  what 
ways  of  reaching  a  buyer  lies  open  to  the  producer  need 
to  be  considered. 


314        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Direct  Fancy  Retail  Trade — This  method  holds  the 
highest  possibiUties  of  profit  to  the  producer.  It  cuts  out 
all  the  profit  which  is  divided  between  the  commission 
merchant  and  the  proprietor  of  the  retail  store.  It  is  a 
trade  easy  to  cater  to  if  one  has  the  right  class  of  goods 
and  easy  to  keep  if  one  does  what  is  right.  It  requires 
tact  and  time  to  build  it  up,  but  will  be  easily  held  if 
the  goods  prove  satisfactory.  Unless  one  has  the  ability 
to  furnish  a  regular  consignment  throughout  the  season 
of  the  contract,  or  annually,  there  is  no  use  of  consid- 
ering this  method  of  marketing.  The  customers  that 
are  obtained  for  this  class  of  trade  are  private  families, 
hotels,  restaurants,  hospitals,  clubs,  schools  and  other 
city  organiations.  The  prices  obtained  are  usually  fixed 
by  contract,  being  a  certain  amount  over  and  above  that 
paid  for  the  same  product  in  the  local  retail  stores  or 
that  given  in  the  local  market  reports.  Some  take  the 
average  market  for  the  previous  year  and  make  an 
annual  price,  others  a  monthly  price  in  the  same  manner, 
while  still  others  make  it  a  stated  advance  over  the  aver- 
age current  price  each  week  or  month.  What  shall  be 
the  basic  market  price  used,  what  the  advance  and  who 
shall  pay  express  charges  must  be  well  talked  over  to 
avoid  any  misunderstandings.  The  smaller  cities  sur- 
rounding larger  ones  often  furnish  a  good  direct  retail 
market  since  the  larger  city  is  shipping  produce  to  the 
smaller  at  certain  seasons.  Always  economize  by  having 
stated  times  to  prepare  and  market  produce,  thus  not 
breaking  up  other  plans  for  other  days. 

Retail  Stores — Where  one  does  not  feel  warranted  in 
seeking  a  private  trade  and  still  has  good  produce  and 
a  uniform  supply  there  can  always  be  found  retail  stores 
which  are  glad  to  take  the  produce  for  their  fancy  trade. 
The   prices   received   will    always    save   the    commission 


Preparing  and  Marketing  Poultry  315 

man's  profit  and  usually  bring  a  premium  over  the  reg- 
ular price. 

Associations — In  many  places  associations  have  been 
formed  which  handle  all  local  products  of  their  members 
or  of  their  community.  The  officers  or  employes  are  paid 
for  services  only  and  all  goods  are  graded,  packed  and 
marketed.  Each  member  receives  the  actual  net  returns 
for  his  products  which  are  obtained  by  the  association 
for  that  grade  of  produce. 

Commission  Merchants — Sending  the  produce  to  com- 
mission men  is  the  simplest  and  really  the  cheapest 
method  of  disposing  of  it.  Xo  matter  what  the  product 
is  there  may  always  be  found  some  firm  who  handles  it 
as  a  specialty  and  in  many  cases  a  good  quotation  will 
be  made  for  a  good  product.  Transportation  and  a 
commission  will  reduce  the  profits  somewhat.  \A'here 
one  has  no  regular  supply  this  is  almost  the  only  method 
available. 

Packers'  Plants — \Miere  one  is  located  within  a  rea- 
sonable distance  of  the  "  cramming  "  or  "  fattening  " 
plants  owned  and  operated  by  the  large  packers  one 
may  find  a  ready  market  for  all  poultry  at  a  price  equal 
to  that  paid  by  the  commission  houses.  Not  having  any 
commission  to  pay  one  realizes  more  than  when  sending 
them  to  a  regular  market. 

Shall  One  Market  AUtc  or  Dressed? — The  dressed 
product  by  killing,  picking,  drawing  and  severing  the 
head  and  feet  loses  weight,  almost  one-third,  the  leaving 
on  of  the  head  and  feet  intact  leaves  the  loss  less  than 
one-fourth,  while  merely  killing  and  plucking  without 
bleeding  or  drawing  reduces  the  loss  to  about  one-tenth 
of  the  original  weight.  Therefore  from  the  quotations 
sent  out  by  each  city  one  can  approximate  which  method 
will  bring  the  best  returns.    Each  market  should  be  stud- 


316         Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

led,  as  there  are  certain  markets  which  will  not  receive 
live  poultry,  while  others  will  not  pay  enough  more  for 
the  dressed  product  to  warrant  that  expense.  A  near-by 
market  usually  causes  very  little  shrinkage  to  live  poultry 
if  they  are  properly  fed,  watered  and  shipped.  Study 
each  market  dealt  with  and  then  dress  or  ship  alive 
accordingly  as  the  margin  of  profit  warrants. 

Jllicn    to    Market — Always    plan    to   market    produce 
when  it  is  ready  and  always  plan  to  have  it  ready  when 


BLACK  LANGSHAN. 
Courtesy  of  Jes.sie   T.   Bateman. 

the  market  is  the  best.  In  short,  ])e  seasonable  with  prod- 
ucts where  such  a  course  is  possible.  A  bird  which  is  in- 
tended for  market  only  is  not  to  be  kept  beyond  a  profit- 
able age.  Many  keep  a  two-pound  broiler  which  in  June 
would  fetch  forty  cents  until  fall,  when  the  same  bird 
brings  the   same  price,  thus  losing  the   care  and   food 


Preparixg  and  ^Marketing  Poultry  317 

given  the  fowl  to  develop  it.  Also  many  shippers  lose 
money  because  they  ship  at  the  wrong-  time  of  the  week. 
Each  market  has  its  strongest  days  each  week,  of  which 
one  must  take  advantage. 

Shipping — In  choosing  a  shipping  route  be  certain  to 
consider  which  is  the  cheapest,  the  most  careful  in  han- 
dling produce,  the  most  prompt  in  dehvery,  the  fairest 
in  settling  damages  and  the  one  most  direct  when  other 
considerations  are  equal.  The  nature  of  the  product 
will  determine  whether  it  will  go  by  freight  or  express 
most  economically.  Seasons  will  also  affect  this  ques- 
tion. The  time  to  ship  will  be  determined  by  the  local 
conditions  as  well  as  by  the  market  to  which  the  produce 
is  sent.  Some  markets  are  almost  dead  upon  certain 
days  of  the  week.  Each  shipper  must  study  these  vari- 
ous conditions  for  himself  and  decide  which  course  will 
be  the  most  profitable. 


Chapter  XXIII. 
CARVING   A   FOWL. 

Every  head  of  a  family  and  each  member  of  every 
family  should  be  able  to  use  a  knife  and  fork  skillfully 
and  gracefully.  Imagine  the  discomfiture  of  guests  who 
must  sit  and  watch  the  unnecessary  awkwardness  of  a 
host  which  arises  because  of  his  ignorance  of  a  fowl's 
anatomy.  Even  though  the  act  of  carving  was  com- 
pleted without  accident,  yet  such  a  festive  event  should 
be  begun  as  happily  as  possible.  Skillful  carving  is  a 
pleasure  to  both  the  observers  and  the  observed.  It 
requires  knowledge,  patience  and  practice. 

There  are  certain  essentials  required  to  allow  of  neat 
carving.  The  knife  and  fork  should  be  well  balanced 
and  of  high-grade  material.  They  should  be  sharp  and 
responsive.  A  dull  blade  is  unforgivable.  The  platter 
containing  the  fowl  should  be  spacious  enough  to  permit 
of  turning  the  fowl  if  desired  and  of  holding  the  product 
of  the  carving  knife.  A  well  roasted  fowl  is  essential. 
The  last  and  most  vital  requirement  is  a  person  who  will 
tend  strictly  to  the  duty  before  him  and  proceed  in  a 
quiet,  orderly  and  intelligent  manner. 

Some  carvers  sit  while  others  stand.  The  latter  seems 
to  be  the  least  awkward  position  with  many  and  re- 
quires less  moving  of  the  bird.  Hold  the  implements 
light,  but  firmly.  Let  the  motions  be  largely  of  the  wrists. 
Never  allow  the  hand  or  fingers  to  touch  the  tools  below 
the  hilt.  A  good  carver  never  allows  the  handles  of  his 
318 


Carving  a  Fowl 


319 


LIGHT   BRAHMA. 


Courtesy  of  Klee  Bros, 


320        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

knife  or  fork  to  become  greasy.  He  never  misses  a  joint 
thereby  striking  a  bone. 

The  fowl  should  lie  upon  the  platter  on  its  side 
and  the  breast  towards  the  carver.  Insert  the  fork  into 
one  leg  and  as  it  is  lifted  away  from  the  body  the  knife 
should  follow,  cutting  the  flesh  until  it  passes  easily 
through  the  joint  at  the  body.  Divide  this  detached  por- 
tion into  the  drumstick  and  thigh  piece  and  place  them 
neatl\-  upon  the  edge  of  the  platter.  Likewise  dispose 
of  the  other  leg  and  second  joint.  Each  wing  in  turn 
finds  its  way  upon  the  edge  of  the  dish.  If  one  hits  these 
joints  properly  they  will  klmost  appear  to  drop  apart. 
Next  place  the  bird  upon  its  back,  holding  it  firmly 
with  the  breast  easy  of  reach.  Carve  the  breast  meat 
into  thin,  dainty  slices.  Now  remove  the  oyster  piece  at 
one  stroke.  The  guests  may  now  be  served  with  their 
choice  of  meat  and  with  dressing  if  the  latter  be  present. 
Some  serve  the  skeleton  of  the  roast  and  in  such  cases 
the  sidebones  form  a  helping  while  the  balance  of  the 
fowl  usually  makes  two  helpings. 

The  neat  handling  of  the  knife  and  fork  will  add  much 
to  the  attractiveness  of  a  dinner  and  no  person  should 
cease  experimenting  at  home  until  he  can  take  the  place 
of  honor  at  any  table  and  upon  any  occasion  success- 
fully carve  a  fowl.  It  is  simple  yet  exacting  and  pleas- 
urable. 


Chapter  XXIV. 

A  FEW  TABLE  DELICACIES  FROM  EGGS  AND 
POULTRY. 

Poached  Eggs. 

Eggs  should  be  dropped  in  hot,  salty  water  to  which 
have  been  added  a  few  drops  of  vinegar.     Set  pan  on 
back  of  stove  and  keep  hot  until  cooked.     Remove  from 
wate'r,  butter  and  pepper  to  suit  taste. 
Steamed   Eggs. 

Break  into  buttered  cups  and  season  to  suit  indi- 
vidual. Cook  in  an  ordinary  steamer  for  about  five 
minutes.  Very  nice  for  an  invalid  if  beaten  light,  sea- 
soned and  steamed  until  well  warmed  through. 

Eggs  with  Toast. 
Carefully  toast  the  required  amount  of  bread  and 
take  an  equal  number  of  eggs  and  drop  in  hot  (not 
boiling)  water.  When  the  eggs  are  sufficiently  cooked 
put  on  the  buttered  toast,  adding  salt,  pepper  and  but- 
ter to  the  egg.    Serve  on  hot  plates. 

Egg  Cups. 

Cut   slices   of  bread   an   inch   thick.      Trim   bread   in 

round   form   and   cut  out   center   enough   to   put   in   an 

egg.     Butter  bread  and  set  in  oven  until  slightly  crisp. 

Break  fresh  egg  in  center,  season  with  salt  and  pepper, 

moisten  with  cream  and  put  in  oven  until  egg  is  cooked. 

Boiled    Eggs. 

Place  the  eggs  in  a  covered  dish  holding  at  least  two 

321 


322         Science  axd  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

quarts  to  each  dozen.  Pour  over  them  boilin^^  water, 
cover  tightly  and  set  aside  for  twenty  minutes.  The 
flavor  is  retained  by  this  method. 

Boil  from  three  minutes  to  one  hour  and  serve  as 
commonly  used,  with  dressings,  with  currie,  or  as  fancy 
may  dictate. 

Fried  Eggs. 

Break  the  required  number  of  eggs  into  the  butter 
or  grease  they  are  to  be  fried  in  and  after  cooking  a 
moment   add    a   tablespoon   or   more    of   water.      Cover 
tightly  and  eggs  will  cook  over  tops  easily. 
Scrambled  Eggs. 

Butter  or  lard  any  receptacle.  Heat  well  and  drop 
therein  the  eggs.  After  cooking  a  moment  add  a  table- 
spoonful  of  water,  season  to  taste,  then  stir  and  cover. 
Stir  at  very  short  intervals  until  thickened  to  suit. 
Serve  with  toast  or  bread  and  butter. 
Eggs  Swiss  Style. 

Cover  frying  pan  with  fresh  butter  and  sprinkle  over 
it  grated  cheese.  Drop  the  eggs  on  the  cheese  and 
.season  with  salt  and  pepper.  Pour  a  little  cream  over 
eggs  and  sprinkle  with  grated  cheese.  Bake  in  oven 
until  eggs  are  set. 

Omelet. 

Break  eggs  in  a  bowl  and  add  salt  and  pepper  to 
season,  beat  with  fork  and  add  cream  or  milk  in  the 
proportion  of  one  tablespoonful  to  an  egg.  Put  butter 
in  frying  pan,  when  melted  put  in  eggs  and  cook  over 
a  quick  fire  until  they  are  set.  Roll  and  turn  on  hot 
dish. 

The  French  omit  the  cream  or  milk,  adding  the  same 
amount  of  water  instead,  and  claim  the  omelet  to  be  su- 
perior. 


Table  Delicacies  From  Eggs  and  Poultry    323 

Omelet  with   Ham. 

Three  eggs,  yolks  and  whites,  beaten  separately.  Add 
salt  and  a  cup  of  rich  cream  in  which  has  been  stirred 
a  heaping  spoonful  of  flour.  Have  a  frying  pan  very 
hot  in  which  is  a  tablespoon  of  lard  and  pour  in  the 
mixture,  adding  a  cup  of  finely  chopped  ham.  Fold  to- 
gether when  a  rich  brown. 

Egg   Custard. 

To  one  quart  of  milk  add  six  eggs  well  beaten. 
Sweeten  and  flavor  to  taste.  Bake  or  boil  over  a  slow 
fire  and  no  longer  than  necessary  to  form  a  custard. 
Too  much  heat  or  too  long  continued  will  separate  the 
constituents.  Placed  in  cups  and  cooked  by  surround- 
ing water  is  an  excellent  method. 
Devilled   Eggs. 

Select  perfectly  fresh  eggs,  boil  until  hard.  Drop  in 
cold  water  and  leave  until  cold.  Remove  shells,  cut 
eggs  in  half,  separate  yolks  from  whites  and  carefully 
mix  yolks  to  a  paste  with  mustard,  salt  and  vinegar  to 
suit  taste.  Carefully  fill  the  halves  with  the  mixture 
and  arrange  daintily  with  lettuce  leaves.  These  are  nice 
for  picnic  dinners. 

Pickled  Eggs. 

Boil  eggs  hard.  Take  one-half  teaspoonful  of  salt, 
one-half  teaspoonful  of  pepper  and  add  a  little  mustard. 
Mix  well  and  heat  in  sufficient  vinegar  to  cover  the 
eggs.  Pour  over  eggs  while  boiling  hot  and  add  some 
slices  of  beet  pickles.  This  gives  the  eggs  a  pretty 
color.     Cover  closely  and  let  stand  for  several  days. 

Noodles. 
Into  an  egg  well  beaten  work  in  flour  until  a  smooth 
dough  is  formed.    Roll  out  thin,  cut  in  very  small  strips 
and  cook  in  soups. 


324        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Egg  Sandwiches. 
Chop  finely  the  whites  of  hard-boiled  eggs.  Mince 
the  yolks  with  a  fork  and  mix  with  whites  and  season 
with  salt  and  pepper.  Moisten  with  Mayonnaise  or 
cream  salad  dressing.  Cut  thin  slices  of  bread,  remove 
crusts  and  spread  evenly  with  the  mixture.  Put  to-' 
gether  in  pairs  and  cut  in  triangles. 

Eggs  with  Dried  Beef. 
Take  one  cup  of  dried  beef,  one  cup  of  tomatoes  and 
two  tablespoons  of  grated  cheese.  Season  with  onion 
juice  and  cayenne  pepper.  Melt  butter  and  heat  the 
mixture,  adding  three  well  beaten  eggs  last.  Cook  care- 
fully until  of  a  creamy  consistency.  A  nice  receipe  for 
the  chafing  dish. 

Jell-O  With  Eggs. 
A  pretty   dish   is   made   by   preparing   jell-o  as   usual 
and   when  nearly  cold   break   into  it   the  whites  of  five 
eggs  and  whip  to  a  froth.     Sweeten  and  flavor  to  suit 
taste. 

White  of   Egg   Frosting. 
Boil  two  cups  of  sugar  in  a  little  water  until  it  threads 
from  the  spoon.     Remove  from  fire  and  add  one  white 
of  egg  beaten  stifi^.     Beat  thoroughly  and  put  on  cake. 

White  Sauce. 
One  and  one-half  pints  of  milk  heated,  add  three 
tablespoonfuls  of  butter  and  stir  into  this  three  table- 
spoonfuls  of  flour  which  has  previously  been  stirred 
smooth  in  a  little  milk  or  water.  Add  salt  and  pepper 
to  taste.  Used  in  many  egg  preparations. 

Egg   Sauce   for   Fish. 
One  cup  of  white  sauce  and  three  hard-boiled  eggs 
chopped   well.     Add   one   teaspoon   of   lemon   juice   and 


Table  Delicacies  From  Eggs  axd  Poultry     325 

one   tablespoon    of   chopped    parsley    after   taking    from 
fire. 

Egg  Sauce  for  Pudding. 

Combine  the  whites  of  two  eggs,  well  beaten,  one 
cnp  of  sugar  and  one-half  cup  of  cream.  Two  cups 
of  berries  mashed  and  stirred  in  make  a  delicious  addi- 
tion. 

Egg   Salad   Dressing. 

Yolks  of  two  eggs  well  beaten,  one-half  cup  vinegar, 
butter  size  of  a  walnut, .  one-half  spoonful  of  mustard, 
a  little  salt,  one-half  cup  sugar  and  one-half  cup  water. 
Two  teaspoonfuls  of  flour  to  thicken.  While  cooking 
if  it  gets  too  thick  add  either  water  or  vinegar  to  thin 
if  the  vinegar  is  not  strong.  It  is  better  to  make  it 
quite  thick  and  when  done  add  cream  to  make  it  of 
proper  consistency. 

Egg    Salad. 

Boil  six  eggs  hard.  Remove  shells  and  cut  in  half. 
Arrange  in  salad  dish  with  lettuce  leaves.  Choose 
fresh,  crisp  lettuce  and  make  little  nests  with  two  egg 
halves  in  each.  Pour  over  the  whole  a  cream  salad 
dressing. 

Eggnog. 

Two  cups  of  milk  and  its  cream  and  one  egg  thor- 
oughly whipped.  Add  vanilla  and  sugar  to  suit  the 
taste.     Use  the  milk  hot  or  cold  as  desired. 

Egg  Broth. 
To  hot  meat  broth  add  one  well  beaten  egg  and  drink 
before  cooling. 

Egg   Beverages. 
Add  a  well  beaten  egg  to  any  drink  desired.     They 
go  nicely  with  all  beverages. 


326        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Specl\l  Uses  of  Eggs. 

The  white  of  an  egg  makes  a  good  mucilage. 

Whites  of  eggs  in  large  quantities  are  good  in  cases 
of  poisoning  where  the  poison  is  acid  in  its  nature. 

Add  the  white  of  an  egg  to  a  mustard  plaster  and  it 
will  not  blister. 

Frosting  made  of  confectioners'  sugar  is  much  nicer 
if  it  is  mixed  with  the  white  of  an  egg. 

An  egg  is  excellent  for  settling  coffee. 

Clean  water  bottles  with  egg  shells  and  salt. 

The  white  of  egg  beaten  to  a  froth  and  milk  added, 
sweetened  and  flavored  is  a  good  substitute  for  wdiippcd 
cream. 

Yolks  of  eggs  should  be  beaten  until  a  spoonful  can 
be  easily  dipped  up  without  stringing. 

Whites  of  eggs  should  be  beaten  to  a  stiff  froth. 

Ten  ordinary-sized  eggs  are  equal  to  one  pound. 
Gravy  for  Roast  Poultry. 

Use  the  drippings  left  in  pan.     Mash  liver  and  chop 
heart  and  gizzard.     Add  milk  and  cream  and  thicken. 
Bread  Stuffing  for  Food. 

Take  sufficient  dry  bread,  soak  with  milk  and  cream. 
Work  until  smooth  with  the  hands,  adding  a  good- 
sized  tablespoon  of  butter,  add  salt,  pepper  and  sage  to 
suit  the  taste.  Some  like  the  addition  of  finely-chopped 
onion,  which  is  especially  good  when  stuffing  a  goose. 
Stuffing  for  Roast  Goose  and  Duck. 

One  large  onion  chopped  fine,  two  cups  of  mashed 
potato  and  one  cup  of  dry  bread  crumbs.  Add  butter, 
sage,  salt  and  pepper  to  suit  the  taste. 

One  large  onion  chopped  fine,  three  pints  of  bread 
crumbs,  six  ounces  of  butter,  a  taste  of  salt  pork,  salt, 
sage,  and  pepper  to  suit  makes  an  excellent  stuffing. 


Table  Delicacies  From  Eggs  and  Poultry    327 

Chestnut,  Celery,  or  Oyster  Stuffing  for  Poultry. 
Two  cups  of  fine  bread  crumbs.  Two  cups  of  French 
chestnuts  boiled  and  shelled.  Chop  chestnuts  fine  and 
add  salt,  pepper  and  parsley  to  season.  Add  one-half 
cup  of  melte«i  butter.  Celery  may  be  substituted  in 
place  of  chestnuts  for  celery  stuffing.  Also  oysters 
carefully  picked  for  oyster  stuffing. 

Sauce  for  Roast  Poultry. 

Boil  one  sliced  onion  one  minute,  pour  off  the  water, 
add  one  pint  of  milk  and  cook  well.  Add  one  cup  of 
fine  bread  crumbs,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter  and 
bring  to  a  boil.  Add  boiling  milk  or  water  if  too  thick. 
Season  to  taste.  For  flavor  add  any  herb,  extract,  or 
any  vegetable  to  suit  those  served.  Parsley,  saxo-ny, 
sage,  thyme,  lemon,  marjoram,  carrots,  and  many  other 
flavors  are  available.  Onion  may  be  left  out  entirely  if 
desired. 

Fresh    Fried   Fowx. 

Cut  up  and  boil  until  fairly  tender.  Alake  a  batter  of 
beaten  eggs  and  fine  bread  crumbs  seasoned  to  taste 
with  pepper,  salt,  mace  or  nutmeg  and  a  few  sprigs  of 
parsley.  Dip  each  piece  into  this  batter  and  fry  to  a 
nice  brown.  Pour  over  this  a  rich  butter  and  flour 
gravy  flavored  with  mushroom  or  other  catsup.  Serve 
with  sippets  and  sliced  lemon. 

Jellied  or  Picnic  Poultry. 

Boil  any  fowl  very  tender  so  that  bones  may  be 
easily  picked  out.  Put  back  in  the  water  and  let  it  stand 
over  night.  In  the  morning  chop  very  fine  and  season 
with  salt  and  pepper,  also  butter  if  the  fowl  is  not  very 
fat.  Mix  well  and  put  in  molds  and  turn  out  after  it 
has  cooled  and  hardened.  Slice  thin  for  sandwiches  or 
medium  for  serving.    Any  seasoning  may  be  used  to  suit 


328        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

the  taste.  Celery,  onions  or  other  vegetables  or  herbs 
are  often  added  just  before  the  hardennig  takes  ]^lace. 
Hard  boiled  eggs,  sliced,  may  be  used  to  line  the  molds. 

Roast  Fowl. 
Fowls  of  any  size  or  breed  may  be  roasted  in  the  same 
manner  by  using  judgment  as  to  the  length  of  time  they 
should  be  left  under  the  heat  and  by  basting  frequently 
or  using  other  means  to  prevent  burning.  Prepare  the 
food,  stuff  it  or  not  to  suit  the  taste  and  tie  or  truss  it 
to  keep  the  wings  and  legs  in  position.  If  not  stuffed 
put  a  little  seasoning,  with  or  without  butter,  within 
the  fowl.  If  the  oven  is  hot  upon  the  bottom  use  some- 
thing under  the  pan  to  protect  it.  Place  the  fowl  in  the 
pan,  which  should  contain  hot  water  and  butter.  Watch 
often  and  bake  under  a  fairly  hot  but  even  fire.  In 
game  or  domestic  fowls  the  secret  of  flavor  is  to  keep  the 
juices  within  the  meat.  This  is  accomplished  by  but- 
tering the  fowl  when  placed  in  the  oven  and  by  frequent 
basting.  Some  rub  or  dredge  flour  over  the  butter  when 
first  placed  in  the  oven.  Still  others  leave  the  flour 
until  they  wish  to  brown  the  fowl,  then  add  the  flour 
just  after  basting  well.     Serve  with  or  without  gravy. 

Roast  Goose  or  Turkey. 
Obtain  as  young  a  goose  as  possible.  Stuff  and  close 
openings  well.  Truss  it  carefully.  Place  in  baking  pan 
with  a  little  water  under  an  even  fire.  Baste  frequently 
with  a  little  salty  water  to  which  has  been  added  a  little 
vinegar.  Turn  often.  Bake  until  tender  and  brown. 
Remove  from  pan,  pour  out  fat  and  add  the  chopped 
giblets  which  have  previously  been  stewed  tender.  Add 
butter  and  flavoring,  then  thicken  to  taste.  If  a  double- 
roasting  pan  is  not  available,  use  an  even  fire  and  baste 
often.     Some  cover  with  a  greased  cloth  over  which  is 


Table  Delicacies  From  Eggs  and  Poultry    329 

placed  dry,  stiff  brown  paper.    Keep  an  excess  of  oil  out 

of  the  pan  if  the  bird  is  fat. 

Boiled  Turkey. 
Truss  or  tie  the  legs  and  wings  firmly.  Boil  in  a  large 
kettle,  placing  the  bird  breast  down  in  boiling  water  into 
which  has  been  placed  such  vegetables,  seasoning  or 
herbs  as  suit  the  taste.  When  tender  let  drain  well.  Pour 
over  it  any  special  sauce  best  liked  or  prepare  it  as 
other  fowls  by  use  of  butter  or  a  gravy. 

Braised  Turkey. 
Prepare  bird  as  for  roasting,  using  a  forcemeat  made 
of  finely  chopped  chicken,  sweet  breads  and  mushrooms 
with  the  bread.  Cover  the  breast  with  shreds  of  fat  salt 
pork.  Place  turkey  in  a  large  stew  pan,  breast  upper- 
most, and  vegetables  and  chicken  broth  to  cover.  Set 
on  top  of  stove  and  when  hot  put  in  oven  and  cook 
slowly.  Baste  often.  Should  be  done  in  one  and  one- 
half  hours. 

Guinea  Fowl — Southern  Style. 
Cover  the  bottom  of  a  frying-pan  with  sliced  onions 
slightly  browned.  Then  lay  on  the  pieces  of  fowl  cut 
as  for  fricassee,  putting  thin  strips  of  bacon  over  the 
meat,  adding  w^ater  and  cover  pan  tightly.  Cook  until 
w^ell  done.  Guinea  fowl  may  also  be  cooked  in  the  same 
manner  as  game  birds.  The  very  young  birds  are  best 
broiled. 

Roast  Duck. 
Cleanse  thoroughly.  Singe  and  broil.  Remove  the 
pinions  and  long  neck.  Stuff  and  skewer  the  wings 
close  to  the  side.  The  feet  are  to  be  scalded,  cleaned 
and  twisted  across  the  back.  Roast  from  thirty  to  forty- 
five    minutes,    basting    often    and    dredging    with    flour. 


330        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Serve  with  brown  gravy.     Remove  all  oil  possible  when 
basting. 

Broiled  Squab. 
The  birds  should  be  full-grown  but  not  more  than  a 
day  or  two  out  of  the  nest.  Singe,  draw,  split  down  the 
back  and  crack  bones  and  flatten.  Season  with  salt  and 
pepper  and  broil  slowly.  Serve  on  hot  dry  toast  with  hot 
butter  poured  over.     Garnish  and  serve  at  once. 

Giclet  Pie. 
After  thoroughly  cleaning  the  giblets  stew  in  a  little 
water  until  nearly  done.  Add  salt,  onion,  pepper  and 
sweet  herbs.  Cool  and  add  small  pieces  of  beeif  or  veal. 
Put  the  liquor  left  from  the  stew  with  the  giblets.  If 
not  very  rich  add  butter.     Cover  with  paste  and  bake. 

Chicken  Soup. 

Cut  in  small  pieces  all  the  meat  from  a  chicken  weigh- 
ing about  three  pounds.  Break  up  the  bones  and  put 
all  on  to  cook  with  about  two  quarts  of  water.  Cook 
about  four  hours  and  skim  thoroughly.  Strain  and  add 
one-half  cup  of  cooked  rice,  one  teaspoon  of  minced 
parsley,  salt  and  pepper. 

Stewed  Chicken. 

Carefully  dress  and  cut  up  chicken  and  put  in  kettle 
with  water  to  nearly  cover,  \\niile  boiling  skim  thor- 
oughly. When  tender  add  salt,  pepper  and  butter  to 
season.  Cook  until  nearly  dry  or  add  milk  or  cream, 
thicken  and  serve  with  chicken.  Some  prefer  without 
gravy. 

Creamed  Chicken. 

Two  cups  of  milk,  two  cups  of  well-cooked  chicken 
and  one  tablespoon  of  butter.  Heat  and  thicken  with 
two  small  tablespoonfuls  of  flour.     Add  salt  and  pepper. 


Table  Delicacies  From  Eggs  and  Poultry    331 

Chicken  Fried — Plain. 

Clean  and  cut  up  a  young  chicken.  Have  ready  a 
frying  pan  with  lard  very  hot.  Flour  chicken  and  put  in 
pan  and  fry  until  tender.  Season  with  salt  and  pepper 
while  cooking.  If  the  fowl  is  tought  it  is  best  to  put  a 
little  water  in  a  kettle  and  stew  until  partly  ten- 
der. After  chicken  is  fried  put  sufficient  water  and  milk 
in  the  pan  for  gravy  and  thicken  with  flour. 

Breaded   Chicken   with   Tomatoes. 

Cut  up  two  small  chickens,  roll  the  pieces  in  bread 
crumbs,  dip  in  beaten  egg  and  again  roll  in  crumbs. 
Season  with  salt  and  pepper.  Fry  the  chickens  until 
well  done  in  lard  and  butter.  When  done  place  pieces 
on  a  hot  dish,  make  a  gravy  of  the  butter,  etc.,  in  the 
frying  pan  and  pour  over  the  chicken.  Garnish  with 
fried  tomatoes.  This  should  be  served  immediately. 
Fricassee. 

Stew  poultry  slowly  until  tender.  Add  seasoning, 
cream  and  butter.  If  juice  is  not  thick  enough  it  may 
be  thickened.  When  ready  to  serve  add  finely  chopped 
celery,  onion  or  parsley  to  suit  taste.  Pour  over  hot 
buttered  toast  or  serve  alone. 

Chicken  with  Peas. 

Prepare   as   in   fricassee   except  that  the  cooking   in- 
cludes young  shelled  peas.    The  peas  may  be  added  after 
the   chicken   is   partly   done   so   that   they   may   become 
tender  at  the  time  the  chicken  is  ready  to  serve. 
Chicken    Currie. 

Cut  chicken  up  into  as  many  joints  as  possible.  Slice 
and  fry  one  onion  in  butter  over  which  has  been  sprinkled 
a  teaspoonful  of  currie  powder.  When  the  onion  is 
nicely  browned  put  in  the  chicken,  another  teaspoonful 
of  currie  powder  and  salt  to  taste.     Fry  until  nearly  ten- 


332        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

der  and  brown.  Now  pour  on  sufficient  rich  milk  to 
cover  the  chicken  and  stew  until  tender.  Serve  with 
toast,  dry  cooked  rice  or  alone.  The  currie  powder 
best  for  use  is  composed  of  coriander  seed,  two  ounces ; 
ground  mace,  cloves  and  cinnamon,  each,  one  drachm ; 
black  pepper  and  cardamon  seeds,  each,  one-half  ounce 
cayenne  pepper  and  ginger,  each,  one-quarter  ounce ;  mix 
well,  grind  fine  and  botde. 

Chicken  Pie. 

Boil  two  chickens  until  tender,  season  well  and  thicken 
with  flour.  For  the  crust  take  one  quart  of  flour,  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  unmelted  butter  and  two  large  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  baking  powder.  Mix  up  with  sweet  milk 
and  knead  dough  as  little  as  possible. 

Chicken  Dumplings. 

Take  two  teacups  of  sweet  milk,  one-half  teaspoonful 
of  salt,  add  flour  to  thicken  into  which  has  been  sifted 
two  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder.  Make  quite  a  stiff 
batter.  Cook  with  chicken  which  is  nearly  done  for 
fifteen  minutes  or  more.  Dip  the  tablespoon  into  the  hot 
liquor  of  the  chicken  each  time  before  using  it  to  place 
the  batter  in  the  pot  and  it  will  leave  the  spoon  nicely, 
making  well-shaped  dumplings.  Do  not  boil  too  rapidly. 
Chicken  with  Oysters. 

One  cup  of  cooked  chicken  cut  up,  one  cup  of  oysters, 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  one  cup  of  milk,  three 
tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  salt  and 
pepper  to  suit.  ]\Ielt  butter  and  add  flour,  etc..  when  well 
mixed  add  milk,  then  oysters,  and  last  of  all  the  chicken. 
Cook  until  oysters  arc  plump.  Then  serve  on  toast. 
Pressed   Chicken. 

Boil  two  chickens  until  tender,  then  remove  meat  from 
bones-,  removing  skin.     Mince  fine  and  season  with  salt, 


Table  Delicacies  From  Eggs  and  Poultry    333 

pepper  and  butter.  Mix  this  well  with  chicken  and 
pack  tightly  in  an  earthen  dish,  covering  with  plate.  Put 
a  weight  on  top  and  leave  until  cold. 

Chicken  Sandwiches. 

Cut  thin  slices  of  bread  in  fancy  shapes  and  cover  with 
cold  boiled  chicken  chopped  fine  and  mixed  with  mayon- 
naise. 

Chicken  Croquettes. 

One  cup  of  chicken  chopped  fine.  Add  one  cup  of 
cracker  crumbs  and  one-half  cup  of  milk.  Season  with 
salt  and  pepper  and'  add  a  little  butter.  Mix  in  the  white 
of  an  egg,  dip  in  yolk  and  roll  in  cracker  crumbs.  Fry  in 
hot  lard. 

Eggs  Fried  with  Milk. 

Three  eggs,  one  tablespoonful  of  flour  and  one  cup  of 
milk.  Mix  flour  with  eggs  and  add  milk.  Turn  in  pan  in 
which  has  been  melted  sufficient  butter  to  fry  and  after 
cooking  gently  on  one  side  turn  and  cook*  until  done.  If 
more  salt  is  desired  it  may  be  added. 
Chicken  Salad. 

Cook  till  tender ;  pick  the  meat  into  small  shreds.  Chop 
fine  the  whites  of  twelve  eggs,  some  celery  and  tender 
cabbage.  Mix  them  well  with  the  meat.  Into  this  work 
a  sauce  made  of  the  twelve  yolks  well  mashed,  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  mustard,  two  tablespoonfuls  each  of  butter 
and  sugar,  one-half  cup  of  vinegar  with  salt  and  pepper 
to  taste. 

Some  vary  this  by  using  cucumbers,  lettuce,  and  other 
ingredients. 


Chapter  XXV. 
DUCKS  AND  GEESE. 

Many  breeders  of  waterfowl  go  to  a  great  length  in 
describing  the  advantages  of  their  particular  breed  or 
variety  over  the  many  other  breeds  and  varieties  of 
poultry.  It  is  well  that  each  variety  of  all  breeds  of 
poultry  has  its  enthusiastic  admirers  to  keep  its  merits 
and  improvement  constantly  before  the  public  eye.  Again 
our  individual  preferences  and  local  conditions  lead  us 
to  obtain  better  results  from  one  breed  or  variety  than  we 
could  obtain  from  others.  So  it  is  not  at  all  strange 
that  ducks  and  geese  have  strong  advocates  everywhere 
and  they  are  justified  in  their  advocacy  by  the  results 
obtained  in  the*"  showroom  as  well  as  in  the  commercial 
world. 

The  advancement  in  this  industry  during  recent  years 
has  been  phenomenal.  It  has  averaged  equally  remu- 
nerative with  other  kinds  of  poultry  and  with  many 
breeders  has  proven  the  means  of  a  handsome  income, 
while  to  thousands  of  homes  the  returns  from  the  ducks 
and  geese  have  helped  to  pay  ofif  the  mortgage  or  bought 
for  the  home  what  otherwise  would  have  been  denied. 
The  East  has  been  the  seat  of  the  most  rapid  develop- 
ment, while  the  West  is  now  rapidly  waking  up  to  the 
possibilities  of  duck  and  goose  culture. 

That  all  kinds  of  waterfowl  are  attractive  no  one  can 

deny.      It   is   generally   considered   easier   to   raise   than 

ordinary  poultry,  while  the  specimens  which  are  fit  for 

the  showroom  are  equally  as  difficult  of  production  if  the 

334 


Ducks  and  Geese  335 

leading  breeders  are  to  be  believed.  They  are  less  liable 
to  disease,  are  rarely  troubled  with  vermin  and  always 
bring  good  prices  because  of  a  steady  demand.  While 
they  eat  more  than  ordinary  fowls  in  a  given  time  yet 
they  mature  more  quickly  and  lay  a  larger  egg.  The 
tendency  to  be  noisy  under  provocation  is  usually  justi- 
fiable and  for  those  who  understand  it  has  a  meaning. 
Running  or  still  water  or  range  is  not  a  necessity  in 
raising  waterfowl  as  is  generally  believed,  although  in 
raising  geese  pasturage  is  almost  essential.  Every 
farmer  should  have  a  few  ducks  or  geese  to  assist  in 
the  family  exchequer. 

Success  in  duck  and  goose  culture  requires  the  same 
knowledge,  system  and  experience  as  in  any  other  busi- 
ness. Alany  things  in  this  industry  can  only  be  learned 
by  constant  contact  with  it.  It  has  both  pleasure  and 
profit  for  the  one  willing  to  serve  a  reasonable  appren- 
ticeship and  grow  with  experience. 

Varieties — The  "  Standard  of  Perfection  "  will  show 
from  year  to  year  the  breeds  and  varieties  admitted  to 
the  standard  and  among  those  will  be  both  utility  and 
ornamental  varieties.  Where  the  dividing  line  lies  may 
not  always  be  agreed  upon  by  all  breeders,  but  among 
the  so-called  ornamental  varieties  of  ducks  may  be 
classed  the  Call  and  Muscovey.  The  former  is  the 
Bantam  among  ducks,  while  the  latter  is  the  oddity  be- 
cause it  has  no  quack,  nests  quite  regularly,  roosts  high 
by  choice  and  under  provocation  will  sometimes  scratch 
like  a  cat.  Its  flesh  is  of  very  fine  flavor  and  quality, 
it  is  a  good  layer  and  requires  five  weeks  to  hatch  its 
eggs.  Of  the  utility  varieties  the  Pekin  holds  the  popular 
place  as  the  best  commercial  duck  in  America  with  the 
Aylesbury  leading  in  England.  The  Indian  Runner  is 
the  greatest  egg  producer  of  the  duck  family. 


336        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Of  the  geese  the  Toulouse  is  one  of  the  larger  and 
most  popular  commercial  birds,  being  followed  closely 
by  the  Embden  in  many  localities.  The  Chinese  are  the 
greatest  egg  producers  and  have  a  trumpet-like  call.  The 
African  has  a  dewlap  under  the  throat  and  by  epicurians 
is  pronounced  of  superior  flavor.  The  Egyptian  is  raised 
largely  for  ornamental  purposes  in  America.  The  Can- 
adian is  also  termed  Wild  (although  there  is  more  than 
one  variety  of  the  wild  goose)  and  in  some  sections  is 
crossed  with  the  domestic  goose,  the  goslings  from  which 
are  called  "  Mongrels  "  or  "  mules  "  because  they  are 
sterile.    They  are  prized  for  their  special  flavor. 

Requirements  of  Housing,  Equipping  and  Yarding — 
The  expense  of  suitable  quarters  for  waterfowl  is  not  as 
high  as  with  many  other  kinds  of  fowl.  The  secret  of 
proper  housing  for  ducks  and  geese  lies  in  dry,  wind- 
proof  and  well  ventilated  quarters.  The  general  prin- 
ciples of  location,  drainage,  ventilation,  insulation,  gen- 
eral arrangement,  type  of  buildings,  manner  of  yarding 
and  other  items  vary  but  little  from  those  applying  to 
other  poultry  and  such  variations  will  be  herein  noted. 
Near  a  large  city  is  the  best  location  for  marketing  these 
products  although  a  limited  output  is  quite  easily  dis- 
posed of  in  smaller  cities. 

The  types  of  buildings  vary  but  little,  all  shapes  and 
sizes  being  utilized.  As  a  general  rule  for  breeding 
houses  a  shed  plan  is  adopted  upon  the  large  farms, 
although  the  gable  type  is  also  quite  popular.  The  aver- 
age width  of  houses  used  is  twelve  feet,  the  length  being 
divided  into  pens  according  to  the  number  of  breeders 
kept  in  each  pen.  The  breeding  pens  are  used  through- 
out the  entire  year,  being  occupied  by  the  young  stock 
to  be  held  over  for  breeding  purposes  w^hen  old  birds  are 
sold.     The  incubator  and  brooder  buildings  differ  in  no 


Ducks  and  Geese  337 

way  from  those  described  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  them. 
The  pens  occupied  when  the  young  stock  is  taken  away 
from  the  brooder  house  are  called  cold  houses  or  fatten- 
ing- sheds.  These  usually  are  much  similar  to  the  breed- 
ing pens  although  on  some  of  the  large  farms  or  ranches 
these  houses  form  a  separate  group  of  buildings.  On 
many  fanns  the  fattening  sheds  are  so  arranged  that 
}arding  runs  both  ways  from  them  and  their  sides  are 
hung  by  hinges  so  that  in  warm  and  pleasant  weather 
they  may  be  raised  and  form  added  shelter.  When  it  is 
windy  or  cold  they  are  lowered,  thus  forming  a  closed 
building.  All  general-purpose  buildings  for  waterfowl 
are  usually  as  low  as  is  consistent  with  convenience. 
The  shed  type  are  frequently  only  three  or  four  feet 
upon  the  low  side.  The  sidewalls  of  nearly  all  build- 
ings used  for  growing  or  breeding  stock  are  of  one 
thickness  matched  lumber  well  laid,  with  a  fairly  good 
light  allowed  by  means  of  double-glazed  windows.  Ven- 
tilation is  cared  for  by  cloth  curtains  to  allow  for  fresh 
air  without  draughts.  The  floor  of  all  buildings  used 
for  waterfowl  should  be  warm  and  dry  since  their  feet 
are  the  only  parts  needing  special  protection  from  cold. 
Dry,  open  sheds  are  often  used  especially  for  geese.  Dry, 
clean,  comfortable  quarters  wnll  soon  pay  for  the  orig- 
inal cost  in  the  lesser  quantity  of  feed  needed  to  main- 
tain health  and  vigor  in  the  fowls. 

Upon  a  large  w-aterfowl  farm  a  convenient  feed  and 
mixing  house  is  essential  as  nearly  all  the  food  given 
is  in  the  form  of  a  mash.  This  is  distributed  by  means 
of  a  tramway.  Devices  for  mixing  quantities  of  food 
are  upon  the  market.  Homemade  mixers  are  easily 
devised  by  using  the  revolving-cylinder  idea  in  their 
construction,  using  thumbscrews  to  hold  the  cover  in 
place  while  revolving  the  mixer. 


338        Science  and  Art  or  Poultry  Culture 

Alleyways  are  rarely  used  in  breeding  pens  although 
nearly  always  provided  for  in  brooder  houses  and  some- 
times in  fattening  sheds.  Where  none  are  used  the 
attendant  steps  over  the  low  divisions  between  the  pens 
when  passing  from  pen  to  pen. 

Tramways  and  cars  are  used  on  all  large  duck  and 
goose  farms,  which  lead  from  the  mixing  or  feed  house 
to  all  the  pens  or  enclosures  containing  stock.  This 
saves  labor  and  expense  in  feeding  and  these  tramways 
are  also  often  arranged  to  pass  by  or  through  all  build- 
ings to  facilitate  cleaning  and  bedding  them.  Sometimes 
within  the  buildings  overhead  tracks  are  used  for  this 
purpose,  the  car  being  adapted  for  both  track  and  tram- 
way. The  tramways  on  some  plants  are  upon  the 
ground,  passing  between  yards  or  pens,  while  in  others 
it  passes  just  above  all  yard  enclosures  or  pens. 

The  equipment  in  a  duck  or  goose  house  is  very  sim- 
ple. No  roosts  are  provided  since  they  sleep  upon  the 
ground  or  floor.  Nests  are  not  used  by  many  since  geese 
and  many  varieties  of  ducks  lay  an  egg  and  cover  it  with 
litter.  Geese  are  more  prone  to  nest  in  one  place  than 
are  ducks.  A  few  breeders  provide  low  divisions  upon 
the  floor  for  nesting  purposes.  A  broody  coop  would 
not  be  amiss  but  will  be  rarely  in  use.  Feed  troughs 
are  usually  about  one  foot  wide,  four  inches  high  and 
from  six  to  twelve  feet  long.  All  are  provided 
with  a  cover  which  allows  the  birds  to  feed  yet 
does  not  permit  of  wasting  or  befouling  the  contents. 
The  troughs  are  less  liable  to  become  sour  if  made  of 
galvanized  iron.  The  covers  may  be  of  lath,  of  stiff 
wire  or  a  rack  in  which  the  divisions  run  up  and  down 
and  whose  base  sets  just  without  the  trough.  This  last 
named  arrangement  leaves  the  top  of  the  trough  free  to 
receive  feed  with  no  interference  on  the  part  of  the  fowls. 


Ducks  axd  Geese  339 

The  width  of  the  spaces  in  the  cover  will  vary  according 
to  the  size  of  the  birds  which  are  to  feed  therefrom. 
The  water  receptacles  should  be  close  to  the  feed  troughs 
and  many  use  a  similar  arrangement  except  making  the 
water  troughs  narrower  by  a  few  inches.  Others  use 
galvanized  iron  founts  of  a  capacity  sufficient  to  last 
between  watering  periods.  The  pans  containing  these 
founts  will  need  to  be  of  a  size  to  allow  the  duck  or 
goose  to  get  its  entire  bill  under  water.  Hoppers  for 
grit,  charcoal  or  other  necessities  should  be  provided. 
Exit  doors  are  always  low  and  convenient. 

Yarding  waterfowl  requires  much  less  expense  than  for 
any  other  class  of  poultry.  The  fencing  need  rarely  be 
more  than  two  feet  high  and  of  any  material  which  is 
available  and  economical  to  the  locality.  One-inch  mesh 
wire  netting  about  two  feet  high  is  used  to  a  large  extent 
and  is  supported  by  substantial  stakes  driven  firmly  into 
the  ground  except  at  or  near  the  ends  or  corners  which 
should  be  well  held  by  posts  to  hold  the  wire  from 
becoming  slack  and  unsightly.  Some  plants  have  a  few 
sections  of  fence  which  are  movable  to  use  as  cross- 
fences,  thus  enabling  them  to  enlarge  the  yards  as  the 
growth  of  the  young  and  the  conditions  of  the  weather 
warrant.  Some  plants  provide  gates  while  others  use 
only  the  track  or  tramway  for  all  purposes  since  one 
can  step  over  all  fences  when  passing  from  yard  to  yard. 
The  size  of  yards  varies  with  diflferent  breeders  from 
twenty  square  feet  per  bird  in  the  brooding  yards  to  one 
hundred  square  feet  in  the  breeding  yards.  The  size  of 
yards  must  be  decided  upon  when  all  local  conditions 
are  considered  as  well  as  the  number  of  fowls  in  each 
flock.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  too  much  range  or 
yarding  cannot  be  given  geese  or  ducks  used  for  breed- 
ing purposes  except  when  the  expense  factor  is  to  be 


340        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

ignored,  and  also  that  ducks  and  geese  intended  for 
market  cannot  be  profitable  if  fed  when  allowed  much 
liberty.  Geese  not  intended  for  market  will  not  thrive 
well  while  yarded.  They  seem  to  need  range  and  con- 
siderable liberty  while  ducks  can  be  handled  in  small 
quarters.  Sometimes  a  goose  will  be  found  which  will 
not  respect  a  two-foot  fence  but  as  a  rule  any  fence 
which  will  confine  a  hog  will  also  confine  geese. 

Drainage  is  an  important  item  in  the  yarding  of  water- 
fowl. If  possible  always  locate  them  upon  a  slope  so 
that  the  rains  will  assist  in  cleansing  and  purifying  the 
yards.  Ground  poisoning  can  be  avoided  with  proper 
care.  All  water  receptacles  in  the  yards  or  buildings 
should  be  so  arranged  that  all  excess  water  spilled  for 
any  reason  can  at  once  get  away  or  much  dampness 
and  filth  will  result. 

Live  water  is  not  necessary  to  raise  either  ducks  or 
geese,  although  a  running  stream  properly  located  and 
not  upon  low  ground  would  be  a  very  desirable  asset 
for  the  breeding  stock  at  certain  seasons  and  for  certain 
varieties.  However,  young  ducklings  or  goslings  are 
never  allowed  by  good  breeders  to  get  into  the  water 
until  fully  feathered,  since  they  do  not  grow  so  rapidly 
and  very  often  die  from  the  wetting  they  receive  before 
being  fully  protected.  When  intended  for  market  they 
should  be  kept  from  the  water  so  that  they  may  fatten 
more  readily.  A  pond,  tank  or  stream  is  often  utilized 
near  the  killing  room  to  allow  the  waterfowl  to  cleanse 
the  plumage  before  they  are  plucked.  Usually  access  for 
a  day  or  two  will  accomplish  the  desired  results.  Run- 
ning water  properly  handled  would  be  ver>'  desirable. 

Shade  is  absolutely  indispensable  during  the  heat  of 
the  summer.  Heat  will  kill  ducks  and  geese  as  certainly 
as  they  have  no  protection  from  it.     If  one  has  no  trees 


Ducks  and  Geese  341 

in  the  runs  then  good  artificial  protection  must  be  fur- 
nished.    To  neglect  this  is  to  invite  certain  loss. 

Breeding — In  picking  out  stock  for  breeding  the 
"  Standard  of  Perfection  "  should  be  well  understood 
and  size,  shape,  points,  vigor  and  development  carefully 
considered.  Use  only  pure  stock  except  as  noted  in 
breeding  for  "  mongrels."  The  leading  breeders  select 
their  stock  from  healthy,  quick-maturing  birds  hatched 
in  January,  February  or  March.  This  allows  of  the  full 
maturity  of  ducks.  Geese  are  not  fully  matured  for 
twelve  or  fourteen  months  and  therefore  do  not  make 
the  strongest  breeders  their  first  season.  A  good  size 
and  large  proportion  of  meat  rather  than  fat  is  the  aim 
of  breeders.  The  breeders  kept  from  late  stock  or  from 
the  slow-developing  ducklings  of  earlier  hatches  will 
soon  prove  the  downfall  of  their  owner. 

Ducks  are  in  their  prime  for  breeders  during  their  first 
and  second  seasons.  Many  use  only  early-hatched  year- 
lings. However,  the  second  year  usually  finds  a  stronger 
average  fertility  and  vigor  throughout  the  entire  season. 
The  drakes  usually  mature  three  months  later  than  the 
ducks.  Both  should  be  well  developed  at  nine  months 
of  age.  Geese  are  their  best  as  breeders  from  the  second 
to  the  tenth  years.  Ganders  usually  are  better  replaced 
at  seven  years  of  age  and  before  if  they  become  dan- 
gerous to  children.  An  ugly  gander  is  no  mean  antag- 
onist when  well  aroused.  Geese  mature  in  from  one 
year  to  fourteen  months. 

Penning  and  mating  should  occur  in  Xovember.  Four 
ducks  to  one  drake  is  enough  at  the  beginning  of  the 
season,  increasing  to  seven  or  eight  later  if  the  drakes 
get  rough  and  maim  the  ducks.  Put  discarded  drakes 
in  a  separate  pen  out  of  sight  of  the  ducks,  reduce  their 
rations   at  least  one-half   for  a  short  time  or  thev  are 


342        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

liable  to  kill  each  other.  Later  give  less  meat  in  their 
mash.  Geese  mate  quite  often  yet  a  gander  will  serve 
two  or  three  geese  satisfactorily,  giving  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  one  chosen  for  a  mate. 

In  some  varieties  the  males  and  females  are  rather 
hard  to  distinguish.  The  drake  has  a  whistling  sound 
while  the  duck  has  a  quack.  In  some  varieties  the  drake 
has  curled  feathers  on  the  back  just  in  front  of  the  tail. 
The  size,  shape  and  carriage  in  all  varieties  are  distin- 
guishing marks  to  the  practiced  eye.  In  many  varieties 
the  color  of  the  males  and  females  differs.  Sex  in  geese 
is  told  by  the  shrill  call  of  the  gander  and  the  hoarse 
answer  of  the  goose,  by  the  masculine  appearance  of  the 
head  and  neck  of  the  male  as  compared  to  the  slim  neck 
and.  smaller  head  of  the  female,  by  the  difference  in  size 
in  favor  of  the  gander  and  by  the  actions  of  the  gander 
when  around  the  females. 

In  purchasing  stock  many  believe  that  excessive  prices 
are  asked  by  breeders.  They  seem  to  forget  that  the 
same  stock  when  ten  weeks  old  was  worth  from  one  to 
two  dollars  each  upon  the  open  market  and  that  it  has 
been  housed  and  fed  for  many  months.  It  costs  as  much 
to  raise  a  good  duck  or  goose  as  any  other  fowl  and  to 
obtain  a  good  standard  fowl  from  a  reliable  breeder  one 
must  pay  a  reasonable  price. 

Avoid  the  pernicious,  and  seemingly  cruel  practice 
of  plucking  the  breeding  stock  for  the  little  profit  made 
on  the  feathers.  It  saps  the  vitality  of  the  birds  and  the 
subsequent  loss  will  be  many  times  the  income  from  the 
feathers.  The  practice  has  almost  ceased  in  America 
and  the  advertisements  of  live-plucked  feathers  put  out 
by  firms  is  no  more  than  an  old  trademark.  Reputable 
breeders  recognize  that  even  one  plucking  is  detrimental 
and  have  entirely  ceased  from  the  practice. 


Ducks  and  Geese  343 

Eggs — Waterfowl  lay  at  night  or  in  early  morning 
and  usually  cover  their  eggs  with  nest  litter.  Some  vari- 
eties of  ducks  and  geese  will  lay  in  nests  properly  placed. 
Where  waterfowl  have  range  they  may  be  confined  in 
the  pens  or  yards  until  about  eight  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing at  which  time  all  will  have  laid.  When  yarded  the 
attendant  gathers  the  eggs  in  the  morning  while  the 
fowls  are  feeding  and  again  during  the  middle  of  the 
forenoon.  The  majority  of  them  will  lay  in  the  houses 
on  the  litter,  although  many  eggs  will  be  found  in  the 
yards.  These  are  cleaned  of  mud  or  filth  but  the  greasi- 
ness  is  not  washed  oflf.  The  eggs  within  the  pens  in  cold 
weather  are  usually  kept  from  chilling  because  of  the 
ducks  or  geese  remaining  over  the  eggs  during  the 
night.  The  litter  also  assists,  while  again  several  ducks 
or  geese  may  lay  in  the  same  place  and  thus  keep  the 
eggs  comfortable  until  the  attendant  arrives  on  his  first 
rounds.   , 

The  color  of  eggs  varies  with  the  breed  and  variety 
from  almost  black  to  green  or  a  clear  white.  The  age 
of  the  fowl  also  varies  the  color  of  an  egg.  They  should 
be  well  formed,  of  medium  size  and  of  sound  shell.  If 
kept  for  incubation  they  should  be  in  a  temperature  of 
about  forty-five  degrees  and  handled  as  little  as  possible. 
They  are  turned  carefully  by  some  breeders  about  twice 
a  week.  Duck  eggs  should  not  be  more  than  two  weeks 
old   to  incubate  well. 

The  duck  as  a  producer  of  eggs  is  very  sensitive  to 
weather  changes  and  to  the  variations  in  rations.  This 
is  also  somewhat  true  of  all  fowls.  The  duck  lays  from 
eighty  to  two  hundred  eggs  per  year  depending  upon 
the  variety  and  care.  Pekin  ducks  often  average  one 
hundred  and  fifty  eggs  per  year,  while  Indian  Runners 
have  been  known  to  exceed  two  hundred.     The  eo;^  is 


344        Science  and  Art  ov  Poultry  Culture 

larger  and  richer  than  those  of  a  common  hen.  Ducks 
often  begin  to  lay  at  six  months  of  age.  The  goose 
begins  to  lay  when  about  one  year  old,  producing  fifteen 
to  forty  each  year  as  age  and  conditions  warrant. 

When  the  feeding  has  been  balanced  and  housing  has 
been  uniform  the  fertility  of  eggs  will  run  quite  high. 
This  is  assuming  that  healthy,  vigorous  stock  is  kept. 
Forced  laying  should  be  avoided.  From  eighty  to  ninety- 
five  per  cent  fertility  is  usual.  In  certain  years  it  seems 
to  be  better  than  in  others  the  country  over. 

Incubation — Nearly  all  duck  eggs  are  incubated  by 
artificial  means  and  no  very  different  principles  apply 
than  those  used  in  the  incubation  of  hens'  eggs.  The 
temperature  for  the  first  fifteen  days  is  run  a  degree 
lower,  while  most  operators  furnish  more  moisture  after 
the  eighteenth  day.  Some  sprinkle  the  floor  of  the  cellar 
twice  a  day,  some  place  a  pan  of  water  in  the  machine 
while  others  sprinkle  the  eggs  daily  with  water  of  the 
same  temperature  as  that  of  the  &^g  chamber,  closing  it 
at  once  to  keep  the  eggs  from  cooling  by  evaporation.  A 
burlap  cloth  laid  under  the  eggs  in  this  tray  assists  in 
conserving  moisture  after  sprinkling.  Any  method  used 
cautiously  and  intelligently  will  bring  results.  The 
machine  should  not  be  opened  after  the  twenty-sixth  day. 
Watch  the  rise  in  temperature  due  to  animal  heat.  Some 
do  not  believe  in  cooling  but  all  believe  in  airing.  Turn 
the  same  as  in  hens'  eggs.  The  twenty-eighth  day  will 
see  the  ducklings  begin  to  pip,  but  they  do  not  break 
the  shells  at  once  upon  pipping.  IMuscovey  ducks  do 
not  pip  until  the  end  of  the  fifth  week  of  incubation. 
Goose  eggs  hatch  in  from  tliirty  to  thirty-three  days. 
Moisture  is  also  added  toward  the  end  of  the  hatch, 
depending  upon  the  evaporation.  Artificial  incubation 
of  the  eggs  of  geese  is  not  so  commonly  practiced. 


Ducks  and  Geese  345 

The  natural  incubation  of  the  eggs  of  waterfowl  is 
largely  done  through  the  medium  of  the  common  hen, 
since  neither  the  duck  nor  the  goose  is  a  reliable  mother. 
Six  or  eight  duck  eggs  or  four  or  five  goose  eggs  are  all 
that  the  average  hen  can  cover  well.  At  pipping  time 
the  hens  will  bear  watching  closely  as  the  appearance  of 
such  strange  little  creatures  arouses  the  hen's  suspicions 
and  sometimes  she  will  kill  them.  Some  hens  will  refuse 
to  sit  upon  such  large  eggs  as  are  given  them.  Choose 
quiet,  trustworthy  hens  of  the  heavier  breeds  and  do  not 
give  them  more  eggs  than  they  can  comfortably  cover. 

In  testing  out  the  eggs  of  waterfowl  the  first  test 
usually  is  made  the  third  or  fourth  day  and  all  clear  eggs 
sent  to  market.  The  second  test  usually  is  given  about 
the  tenth  or  twelfth  day,  and  the  last  or  final  about  the 
twenty-fourth  day.  Dead  duck  eggs  decompose  very 
rapidly  and  any  not  tested  out  may  give  ofif  an  odor 
which  challenges  attention.  Such  should  be  "  smelled 
out "  and  removed  at  once.  Some  operators  tell  them 
from  their  marbled  appearance. 

When  the  hatch  is  well  cleaned  up  the  ducklings  may 
be  left  in  the  machine  for  a  day  or  so  before  removing 
them  to  the  brooder.  Some  operators  leave  them  for 
forty-eight  hours  before  removing  them. 

Brooding  and  Grozving  Period — Nearly  all  ducklings 
and  but  few  goslings  are  raised  by  artificial  means  which 
differs  in  no  way  from  the  chick  brooding  plants  in 
construction.  In  fact  it  is  not  so  difficult  to  raise  duck- 
lings as  it  is  to  raise  chicks.  The  hot-water  pipe  heating 
s}stems  with  box  hovers  are  universally  used.  In  nat- 
ural brooding  with  hens  the  principal  business  of  the 
hen  is  to  follow  the  brood  during  the  day  and  hover 
them  when  cold  and  at  night.  They  care  very  little  for 
their  stepmother's  company  and  pay  no  attention  to  her 


346        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

various  calls.  Old  geese  will  brood,  but  as  a  rule  they 
are  too  valuable  for  eggs  to  let  them  take  such  a  vaca- 
tion as  motherhood  would  entail.  Keep  a  hen  and  her 
goslings  away  from  adult  geese. 

The  ducklings  or  goslings  are  usually  placed  in  the 
brooder  about  a  day  or  so  after  incubation.  They  must 
be  taught  to  seek  the  hover  for  warmth.  A  movable 
board  usually  is  placed  so  that  the  wee  birds  may  get 
only  a  few  inches  away  from  the  hover  until  they  learn 
to  seek  its  warmth,  after  which  the  board  or  division  is 
moved  farther  away  until  entirely  removed.  They  soon 
learn  to  eat  and  drink  and  one  may  now  be  prett}-  certain 
of  raising  them  if  other  conditions  are  observed  such  as 
warmth,  dryness,  cleanliness  and  proper  feeding. 

The  temperature  of  brooders  for  young  waterfowl  is 
not  as  high  as  for  chickens.  The  pipe  3  should  not  come 
within  six  inches  of  the  back  of  the  birds  and  the  bulb 
of  the  thermometer  should  be  protected  so  that  no  body 
heat  of  the  birds  will  affect  it.  The  first  week  they  should 
be  kept  quite  warm,  keeping  the  temperature  around 
ninety  degrees  or  slightly  warmer  if  the  weather  be  cold. 
The  house  should  be  warmed  to  eighty  degrees.  Just  as 
soon  as  the  ducklings  understand  the  source  of  heat  one 
can  begin  lessening  the  heat  until  eighty-five  is  reached, 
and  if  the  spring  is  advanced  they  may  be  entirely  weaned 
from  heat  at  five  weeks  of  age.  However,  if  it  remains 
cold  and  chilly  do  not  take  all  the  heat  away  from  their 
hovers. 

The  best  bedding  for  young  waterfowl  is  planer  shav- 
ings, cut  straw  or  cut  hay,  but  never  sawdust  as  it  gets 
mixed  with  the  food  and  causes  trouble.  Bedding  must 
be  kept  dry  and  clean.  This  enables  the  birds  to  keep 
their  feet  warm  and  dry. 

There  are  a  few  cautions  to  observe  with  young  geese 


Ducks  and  Geese  347 

that  are  important.  Diarrhrea  may  result  from  over- 
feeding, from  sour  food,  from  filth  and  from  too  much 
meat.  The  appearance  of  diarrhea  may  come  from  over- 
feeding on  hard  boiled  eggs  or  bran,  the  little  birds  retain 
the  solids  while  the  liquids  only  pass.  Lack  of  good 
ventilation  and  wet  bedding  will  prove  fatal  to  young 
stock.  Geese  will  not  stand  the  confinement  that  ducks 
will  thrive  under.  Again,  overcrowding  is  certain  to 
cause  trouble.  Many  make  it  a  rule  never  to  place  more 
than  fifty  ducklings  or  twenty  goslings  together.  Lack 
of  shade  in  the  summer  has  proved  fatal  in  many  cases. 
Do  not  allow  the  broods  to  have  access  to  water  in  which 
to  swim  until  they  are  well  feathered  out,  since  their 
growth  will  be  slower  and  many  often  die  as  a  result  of 
the  wetting  and  subsequent  chilling.  Goslings  often  go 
lame  if  allowed  to  swim  while  young.  When  it  is  prac- 
ticable separate  the  sexes  when  they  are  four  or  five 
weeks  old  and  one  will  find  both  doing  better.  Keep 
the  different  sizes  by  themselves.  Watch  the  heat  and 
reduce  it  as  they  grow  older.  If  they  are  inclined  to  lie 
under  the  hover  too  much  shut  them  out  often  until  they 
reform  or  they  will  lose  strength  in  the  legs,  will  stag- 
ger about  and  the  .  eyes  and  nose  will  be  affected  by 
catarrh,  which  becomes  contagious.  Going  "  crazy  "  or 
"  running  wild  "  is  often  the  cause  of  loss  where  young 
stock  are  turned  into  larger  areas  all  at  once  without 
gradually  enlarging  their  quarters.  They  run  themselves 
to  death.  The  most  important  caution  is  to  avoid  nerv- 
ousness in  the  flocks.  They  are  sensitive  to  any  change 
and  are  especially  so  after  dusk.  Keep  away  from  their 
quarters  at  night  all  dogs,  rats  or  even  people.  When 
possible  to  avoid  it  do  not  allow  even  the  attendant  to 
go  among  them,  and  if  it  is  necessary  always  carry  a 
light.    Be  careful  of  shadows.    Many  growers  keep  Ian- 


348        Science  axd  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

terns  in  the  pens  of  growing  stock.  This  may  seem 
rather  unnecessary,  but  once  disturbed  in  the  darkness 
they  will  not  become  quiet  for  hours.  An  alarm  given 
by  one  pen  will  be  spread  throughout  the  entire  plant. 
]\Iuch  loss  of  weight  results  from  nervousness  and  in  a 
large  plant  this  item  is  one  to  be  carefully  watched. 

Foods  and  Feeding — The  rations  chosen  will  depend 
somewhat  upon  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  given.  Herein 
is  suggested  in  table  form  the  principal  ingredients  as 
used  by  growers.  There  can  be  no  binding  or  set  rule 
because  of  certain  local  conditions  of  the  weather  and 
the  availability  of  these  ingredients.  Good  results  are 
obtained  on  entirely  different  formulas.  However,  these 
approximate  what  the  average  grower  practices : 

One  will  notice  the  table  does  not  state  specifically  in 
what  form  the  corn  is  fed.  For  infants,  meaning  the 
first  five  or  six  days,  the  corn  should  be  ground.  There- 
after opinion  is  divided  as  to  whether  it  should  be  ground 
or  cracked.  Those  preferring  the  latter  claim  it  allows 
the  gizzard  to  perform  more  of  its  natural  functions. 
In  any  group  one  can  use  one  or  more  of  the  foods 
mentioned,  but  caution  should  be  exercised  in  the  wheat 
group,  since  bran  or  any  one  of  them  would  not  be  as 
well  as  to  combine  two  or  more  to  make  up  the  given 
percentage.  The  vegetables  may  be  ground,  cut  fine  or 
cooked  as  the  time  of  year  or  age  of  the  birds  may  sug- 
gest. Steaming  clover  or  alfalfa  and  grinding  or  chop- 
ping and  cooking  the  others  on  alternate  days  will  give 
variety.  Also  if  on  range  both  the  meat  and  vegetable 
portion  of  the  ration  should  be  varied. 

Too  much  bran  is  sometimes  loosening  to  the  bowels. 
Many  breeders  give  a  little  whole  oats  and  corn  occa- 
sionally, while  others  claim  it  is  not  good  for  ducks  since 
they  have  no  crop  in  which  to  prepare  it  for  the  gizzard. 


Ducks  and  Geese 


349 


Table  Showing  Average  Percentages  of  Foods  by  Meas- 
ure Used  for  Mash  Feeding  of  IVatcrfozcl 
by  Growers. 


Food 
Groups 

11 

la  £  fe 

H  0  CU 

Fattening 
Period 

Non-breeding 
Period 

ll 

10      1       ^. 

30 

15    . 

25 

Hominy   chops    

Wheat    bran 

53 

50 

40 

45 

30 

Ground   wheat    

Low   grade  flour    

Buckwheat 

3 

Millet   seed    

Oat    meal 

20 

5 

3 

5 

5 

Ground    oats    

Soaked    dried    blood    .  .  . 
Soaked  meat  scrap    .... 
Soaked   animal    meal    .  . 

Soaked    tankage     

Cut    green    bone     

5 

10 

10 

5 

10 

8 

10 

12 

23 

Mangel-wurzel     

22 

Alfalfa    .  . 

Green   cornfodder    

Sand    

Fine  grit    

3 

5 

4 

5 

Charcoal 

Hopper 

Hopper 

Oyster   shell    

Fine   grit    

1       jHopper 

Hopper 

Fresh    water     Founts 

Founts 

Founts    |Founts    Founts 

Buttermilk 

1 

Skim-milk    

1 

Whey     

M'ater      

The  corn  element  of  the  chet  may  be  increased  shghtly  if 
the  cold  weather  and  the  condition  of  the  fowls  warrant. 
Over-feeding  corn  may  result  in  leg  weakness.  Never 
cook  the  mash  nor  make  it  gummy.  ]\Iix  it  wet-dry  so 
that  it  will  pack  somewhat  yet  crumble  at  the  touch. 
Some  growers  add  celery  seed  to  the  fattening  rations 


350        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

to  give  a  delicate  flavor  to  the  meat  in  imitation  of  the 
Chesapeake  Bay  ducks  which  feed  upon  the  wild  celery 
about  the  bay.  To  all  mash  should  be  added  a  little  salt. 
Be  certain  to  get  a  good  grade  of  meat  foods  and  add 
a  higher  percentage  at  molting  time. 

The  infant  fowls  should  have  feed  and  water  before 
them  constantly  for  the  first  two  or  three  days.  It  is 
assumed  that  nothing  but  water  is  allowed  them  for  at 
least  thirty-six  hours  after  hatching.  For  a  week  after 
the  third  day  they  should  be  fed  five  times,  beginning  at 
sunrise  and  ending  at  sunset,  taking  away  all  food  as 
soon  as  they  are  through  eating.  The  object  to  be 
attained  is  to  create  an  appetite  for  each  feeding,  which 
assures  good  digestion  and  assimilation.  Next,  until 
about  six  weeks  of  age  they  are  fed  only  four  times  each 
day  and  thereafter  three  times  daily  until  matured  or 
marketed.  IMatured  stock  are  usually  fed  twice  daily,  at 
sunrise  and  sunset;  at  sunrise  to  keep  them  from  being 
uneasy  and  losing  flesh.  That  would  be  a  splendid  rule 
in  caring  for  all  kinds  of  poultry.  The  fattening  pens 
usually  are  given  special  rations  for  about  two  weeks 
although  some  breeders  never  change  from  the  growing 
ration  until  marketed. 

Except  during  very  stormy  weather  or  with  young 
brooder  stock  the  feeding  and  watering  should  be  done 
outside  in  the  yards.  Always  water  when  feeding  since 
waterfowl  depend  upon  water  to  assist  their  eating.  Place 
both  receptacles  near  each  other.  Never  keep  feed  before 
waterfowl  constantly  unless  they  are  on  range  or  it  will 
cloy  their  appetites.  The  water  receptacles  should  always 
contain  a  plentiful  supply  of  clean,  fresh  water  and  deep 
enough  to  allow  stock  to  insert  the  head  at  least  to  the 
eyes.  Water  colic  often  results  from  allowing  fowls  to 
become  too  thirsty  and  then  gorging  themselves.    Do  not 


Ducks  and  Geese  351 

give  milk  except  in  mash  as  it  often  brings  about  sore 
eyes.  Fine  grit,  oyster  shells  and  charcoal  should  be 
accessible  to  the  flock.  Some  prefer  to  add  charcoal  to 
the  mash  twice  each  week  rather  than  allow  it  to  be 
hopper-fed. 

Ducks  and  geese  require  but  little  feed  when  out  on 
range.  They  are  splendid  foragers  if  given  an  oppor- 
tunity. Geese  are  even  thriftier  in  that  respect  than 
ducks  and  will  if  given  limited  pasturage  eat  the  grass  to 
the  ground.  It  is  often'  claimed  that  cattle  and  geese 
do  not  thrive  together  and  that  the  latter  befoul  the 
ground,  unfitting  it  for  a  cattle  pasture.  That  is  true 
only  in  so  far  as  one  tries  to  keep  both  on  an  area  suffi- 
cient only  for  one.  On  good  pasture  geese  will  find  their 
own  living,  but  with  all  waterfowl  it  is  well  to  give  a 
light  feed  at  night  to  keep  them  at  home  and  away  from 
harm. 

General  Care — Aside  from  the  general  principles  that 
apply  to  all  poultry  a  few  suggestions  will  be  of  assist- 
ance. Take  pains  to  keep  the  quarters  of  all  stock  dry, 
sweet  and  well  ventilated.  Dampness  is  a  sure  fore- 
runner of  rheumatism.  The  bedding  may  be  of  planer 
shavings,  hay,  sand,  straw  or  other  material.  Change  as 
often  as  it  becomes  filthy  or  damp.  Remember  it  is  their 
only  bed.  Allow  no  sour  or  dirty  feed  or  water  recep- 
tacles to  breed  disease.  Any  food  not  eaten  should  be 
removed  within  one-half  hour  to  avoid  cloyed  appe- 
tites, and  if  clean  and  sweet  it  may  be  used  again.  Many 
use  it  for  hog  feed  only.  A  thorough  cleansing  of  feed 
receptacles  should  occur  as  often  as  the  weather  and 
necessity  demand. 

Healthy  waterfowl  will  not  be  troubled  with  lice  or 
subject  to  diseases  such  as  roup,  cholera  or  canker. 
Rodents    and    such    enemies    as   the    fox,    mink,    skunk, 


352        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

weasel  or  other  "  varmints  "  should  be  guarded  against. 
Sometimes  they  contract  the  habit  of  feather-pulling 
when  the  meat  or  vegetable  element  has  been  lacking  in 
their  rations.  In  such  cases  remove  the  culprits  and  sup- 
ply the  proper  ration.  It  is  a  bad  habit  and  one  hard  to 
stamp  out  if  let  go  for  any  length  of  time. 

Always  handle  waterfowl  by  the  neck  or  by  the  whole 
body  and  never  by  the  wings  or  legs  which  are  tender 
and  often  break  when  thus  used.  Exercise  is  not  so 
important  to  duck  or  goose  raising  as  in  chickens,  for 
the  reason  that  they  are  active  by  nature,  being  always 
on  the  move.  It  is  important  to  keep  them  from  being 
nervous  since  they  are  instinctively  timid.  While  grow- 
ing or  fattening  much  money  can  be  lost  by  being  care- 
less in  this  regard.  Quiet  movements  and  the  same 
attendants  are  best.  Good  attendants  always  speak  when 
nearing  ducks  of  any  age.  Note  other  cautions  pre- 
viously given.  Be  regular  and  systematic  in  feeding  and 
keep  growing  and  fattening  stock  from  going  into  the 
water  if  best  results  are  desired.  A  swim  is  often  fatal 
to  a  young  bird  while  in  down. 

Waterfowl  are  easily  raised  if  surrounded  by  healthy 
conditions.  Crowding,  lack  of  shade  in  warm  weather 
and  filthy  yards  are  disease-breeders.  Crowding  pro- 
duces weakness  in  certain  members  which  contract  and 
spread  disease.  Lack  of  shade  allows  apoplexy  to  thin 
the -ranks.  Unsanitary  yards  produce  diarrhea.  Yards 
may  be  kept  from  ground-poisoning  for  many  years  if 
well  located  as  regards  drainage  and  if  before  storms 
the  attendant  will  sweep  up  and  remove  the  droppings. 
In  large  yards  this  is  not  so  practicable  unless  one  has 
a  sweeper.  In  both  small  and  large  yards  one  should 
arrange  to  plow  and  plant  them  to  a  green  crop  as  often 
as  possible.    This  renews  the  ground  and  keeps  it  sweet. 


Ducks  and  Geese  353 

Preparing  JJ'atcrfozcl  for  Commercial  Markets — Meth- 
ods of  fattening,  killing,  plucking,  cooling,  plumping, 
grading,  packing  and  shipping  are  substantially  the  same 
as  given  elsewhere  with  a  few  minor  exceptions.  After 
the  usual  fasting  and  killing  the  plucking  on  large  farms 
is  usually  done  by  women,  who  on  an  average  are  more 
at  from  three  to  seven  cents  and  geese  for  from  eight  to 
twelve  cents  each,  depending  upon  the  season  and  avail- 
ability of  helpers.  The  feathers  just  about  pay  for  the 
plucking.  Green  ducks  and  geese  are  plucked  just  before 
the  pinfeathers  start  or  they  must  be  held  for  another 
month  at  a  loss.  What  few  waterfowl  are  "  live-plucked  " 
are  left  till  after  the  breeding  season  and  when  the 
feathers  are  ripe.  Only  the  valuable  feathers  are  taken. 
No  good  grower  will  "  live-pick  ''  stock  to  be  kept  for 
breeding  purposes. 

After  the  "  roughing  "  is  done  it  is  often  difficult  to 
remove  the  down  and  small  pinfeathers.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  of  geese.  Three  methods  are  employed  by 
different  dressers.  Care  must  be  exercised  when  steam 
or  hot  water  is  used  as  a  ''  scald  "  will  make  a  fowl  look 
stale  and  unattractive  and  command  a  lower  price.  Also 
in  the  use  of  steam  or  hot  water  always  keep  the  head 
and  legs  from  coming  into  contact  with  it.  Some  oper- 
ators remove  the  down  and  pinfeathers  by  shaving  the 
fowl  with  a  sharp  shoe-knife.  Others  place  melted  rosin 
in  hot  water  and  dip  the  fowl  into  it  two  or  three  times 
or  until  the  water  has  penetrated  the  down,  after  which 
a  rolling  and  rubbing  motion  of  the  hand  removes  it. 
Still  another  method  used  is  to  steam  the  fowl  and  rub 
powdered  rosin  into  the  down,  then  steam  again  for  a 
moment  after  which  proceed  as  above. 

Practically  all  waterfowl  are  dry-plucked,  leaving  the 
wing-feathers  on  the  last  joint  of  the  wing  and  a  few 


354        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

feathers  upon  the  neck  near  the  head.  A  few  markets 
demand  them  free  from  all  feathers.  Also  the  head  and 
feet  are  left  intact  and  the  wings  are  sometimes  folded 
close  to  the  sides  or  crossed  over  the  back.  All  markets 
desire  them  undrawn.  In  no  other  manner  does  the  pre- 
paring of  waterfowl  differ  from  previous  descriptions. 
A  large,  plump,  white-skinned  and  well-dressed  fowl  is 
the  aim  of  all  growers  of  market  waterfow^l. 

Marketing — Very  little  of  a  specific  nature  can  be 
stated  as  to  markets  and  prices.  The  eastern  cities  are  by 
far  the  stronger  commercial  markets  for  waterfowl  be- 
cause of  being  the  seat  of  the  development  of  this  indus- 
try. To  the  pioneer  breeders  of  that  section  is  due  the 
credit  for  creating  that  market.  T"st  as  good  an  oppor- 
tunity lies  in  the  West.  Again,  the  prices  are  governed 
to  some  extent  upon  the  grade  of  goods,  the  manner  of 
marketing,  and  the  ability  to  supply  a  stated  quantity. 
The  eastern  markets  often  open  up  in  April  around  thirty 
or  thirty-five  cents  per  pound  for  green  waterfowl,  rap- 
idly declining  to  twelve  or  fourteen  cents  later  in  the 
season.  May  and  June  see  the  height  of  the  season. 
Even  at  twelve  cents  per  pound  money  may  be  made  by 
correct  management. 

The  methods  of  marketing  of  eggs  for  incubation  and 
stock  for  breeding  are  identical  wath  other  poultry.  To 
obtain  good  stock  from  reliable  sources  there  is  but  one 
royal  road  to  success  and  that  is  to  find  reliable  stock  and 
pay  an  honest  price  to  obtain  it.  Such  a  course  is  real 
economy.  What  would  be  an  honest  price  depends  en- 
tirely upon  the  kind  and  grade  of  stock,  its  previous 
breeding  and  somewhat  upon  the  reputation  the  owner 
has  built  up  for  himself.  Waves  of  popularity  often 
affect  the  supply  and  demand. 


Chapter  XXVL 
TURKEY    CULTURE. 

The  awakening  of  an  added  interest  in  turkey  rais- 
ing has  kept  pace  with  the  growth  of  the  poultry 
industry  along  other  lines.  Persons  in  every  state  in 
the  Union  and  in  many  foreign  countries  are  giving 
thought  and  study  to  the  better  development  of  turkey 
culture.  State  agricultural  institutions  are  also  as- 
sisting in  the  common  advance.  Not  only  are  Thanks- 
giving and  Christmas  reminders  of  the  fact  that  such 
fowls  exist,  but  they  are  now  found  upon  the  markets 
along  with  ducks  and  chickens  at  other  seasons. 

The  origin  of  the  turkey  seems  to  be  conceded  to 
the  American  continent.  Certain  it  is  that  the  early 
settlers  feasted  upon  the  wild  turkey  and  set  the  fash- 
ion for  the  prevailing  dish  at  Thanksgiving  time. 
The  beauty  of  plumage  and  excellent  flavor  of  the 
meat  was  soon  heralded  throughout  Europe,  with  the 
result  that  shipments  of  the  wild  birds  began  almost 
at  once  and  thus  the  industry  grew  across  the  ocean. 
Even  now  there  are  ranches  devoted  exclusively  to 
rearing  wild  turkeys  whose  orders  are  beyond  fulfill- 
ing even  at  fancy  prices.  Many  are  using  the  wild 
fowl  to  introduce  new  blood  into  their  flocks. 

That  a  good  flock  of  turkeys  is  a  money-maker 
when  rightly  handled  goes  without  saying.  Naturally, 
they  are  the  best  of  foragers  even  to  the  extent  of  be- 
ing a  neighborhood  nuisance.  They  are  harder  to 
raise  than  are  many  other  kinds  of  poultry  and  it  is 
355 


356        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

the  general  impression  that  they  will  not  stand  con- 
finement. Their  roving  disposition  requires  a  little 
more  attention  at  times  to  teach  them  that  home  is 
the  proper  place  at  night,  since  it  seems  to  be  a  tur- 
key's habit  to  stop  where  night  overtakes  it. 

The  young  of  a  turkey  is  called  a  poult.  Its  breed- 
ing, its  incubation,  its  brooding,  its  feeding,  its 
housing  and  its  general  care  are  very  similar  to  that 
of  other  poultry  as  stated  herein  under  the  respective 
chapters.  Any  variations  from  those  principles  when 
applied  to  turkey  culture  will  be  noted. 

Standard  Requirements — There  will  not  be  an  at- 
tempt  made  to  outline  in  detail  the  requirements  of 
shape  and  color  in  each  section  as  laid  down  by  the 
"  Standard  of  Perfection."  Suffice  it  to  say  that  in 
breeding  turkeys,  as  well  as  other  poultry,  there  is  a 
set  type  for  each  of  the  several  varieties,  to  approach 
which  is  the  true  aim  of  all  turkey  raisers.  X'o 
breeder  should  be  without  this  official  guide.  The 
question  of  weight  seems  to  be  the  one  least  under- 
stood and  the  one  over  which  the  most  dissatisfaction 
arises.  Depending  entirely  upon  tlie  variety,  the 
standard  places  the  weight  of  a  cock  at  from  twenty- 
six  to  thirty-six  pounds,  a  cockerel,  eighteen  to  thirty- 
three  pounds,  a  hen,  sixteen  to  twenty  pounds,  and 
a  pullet  twelve  to  sixteen  pounds.  Heavy  cuts  are 
made  at  all  exhibitions  for  underweight.  There 
seems  to  1)e  a  tendency  for  the  turkey  fanciers  to  seek 
size,  often  at  a  loss  in  reproductive  powers.  Again, 
the  ignorance  of  the  fact  that  a  turkey  sometimes 
grows  for  at  least  three  years  leads  many  purchasers 
to  be  dissatisfied  with  a  purchase  which  is  really  a 
good  one  except  that  its  weight  has  not  had  time  to 
develop.      Also,    in     sliipment    turkeys    lose    weight 


Turkey  Culture  357 

rapidly.  At  mature  age,  some  specimens  have  been 
known  to  weigh  as  much  as  sixty-five  pounds.  A 
novice  may  learn  to  distinguish  a  young  bird  from 
an  old  one  by  noting  that  the  covert  feathers  in  the 
mature  birds  are  much  longer. 

Foundation  Stock — Get  only  birds  that  have  been 
line  bred,  the  best  and  most  vigorous  from  reliable 
breeders.  So  much  depends  upon  the  foundation 
stock  that  the  caution  is  doubly  urged.  It  is  always 
discouraging  to  perform  faithfully  every  detail  of 
incubation,  brooding  and  other  care,  and  then  have 
the  efiforts  come  to  nought.  No  one  can  advise  as  to 
the  best  variety  to  secure.  Personal  likes,  local  con- 
ditions and  many  other  factors  enter  into  each  de- 
cision. The  two  varieties  most  frequently  found  are 
the  Bronze  and  the  White  Holland.  The  former  are 
the  larger  variety,  lead  in  the  numbers  produced,  and 
are  the  more  inclined  to  roam  away  from  home.  The 
hens  hide  their  nests  more  persistently.  The  White 
Holland  are  the  next  in  number  raised,  are  more 
domesticated  and  stay  closer  to  their  home  surround- 
ings. They  do  not  grow  ciuite  so  large  as  the  Bronze 
variety. 

Mating  and  Breeding — Line  breeding  is  just  as  es- 
sential in  turkeys  as  in  other  poultry.  In  addition  to 
what  is  urged  in  "  Principles  of  Breeding  and  the 
Care  of  Breeding  Stock,"  a  few  suggestions  are  in 
order. 

Since  turkeys  seem  to  be  a  little  more  susceptible 
to  inbreeding,  many  breeders  never  use  a  tom  more 
than  one  year,  while  others  allow  him  to  serve  two 
years.  In  any  event  it  is  more  in  the  correct  mating 
than  in  the  number  of  seasons  kept.     Where  all  birds 


358        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

are  allowed  in  one  tiock,  then  a  change  at  least  every 
two  years  is  imperative. 

The  number  of  hens  to  a  cock  or  torn  is  usually 
placed  at  ten,  unless  under  confinement,  when  six  is 
enough.  The  mating  of  a  cock  to  pullets  is  recom- 
mended by  some  and  decried  by  others.  The  objection 
seems  to  be  the  injury  an  old  tom  inflicts  upon  a 
pullet.  This  objection  will  be  overcome  by  cutting 
or  rounding  off  all  sharp  points  on  toes  and  spurs,  and 
by  avoiding  over-heavy  males  in  the  breeding  pens. 
Good  results  are  never  obtained  from  extra  heavy 
breeders.  Overfat  breeders  throw  weak-germed  eggs 
which  result  in  a  loss  of  nearly  every  poult.  See  that 
breeding  stock  is  in  condition  at  least  four  weeks  be- 
fore the  breeding  season  is  to  begin.  ^Mating  should 
take  place  in  February  for  May  poults. 

When  arranging  the  breeding  pens,  choose  only 
such  males  and  females  as  conform  to  standard  re- 
quirements, paying  especial  attention  to  shape  and 
plumage  in  each  sex.  While  weight  is  also  important, 
it  is  usually  made  secondary  by  the  leading  breeders. 
Avoid  shortness  in  shape,  as  it  is  the  rangy  birds  that 
fill  out  into  good  form. 

In  buying  or  selling  breeding  stock,  use  care  that 
the  sexes  are  not  related  directly.  They  should  be 
line  bred,  but  not  closely.  This  point  cannot  be 
guaranteed  by  a  breeder  who  does  not  mate  and  pen 
during  the  breeding  season  and  therefore  cannot  sell 
a  male  from  one  sire  and  dam  and  a  female  from 
another.  Nor  should  breeders  be  late  hatched  birds 
for  the  best  results.  Maturity  is  essential  and  not  so 
early  obtained  as  in  chickens. 

Range  I'S.  Confinement — It  has  always  been  the 
consensus  of  opinion  that  turkeys  will  not  stand  con- 


Turkey  Culture  359 

finement.  However  there  are  many  turkeys  which 
are  reared  and  kept  in  that  way,  although  they  are 
much  more  difficult  to  keep  contented  and  free  from 
ailments  than  when  on  range.  They  are  not  domes- 
ticated to  that  point  where  the  wild  nature  is  entirely 
obliterated.  They  yearn  for  liberty  and  such  confine- 
ment as  given  has  been  more  liberal  and  natural  than 
other  kinds  of  poultry  have  required.  In  reality  they 
are  not  so  many  generations  removed  from  the  wild 
state. 

Range  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  State  and 
locality  in  which  one  is  raising  turkeys.  In  those 
States  where  land  is  cheap  or  woodland  frequent,  and 
homes  not  crowded  together,  good  range  is  usual.  In 
those  sections  where  land  is  high  in  valuation  and 
houses  frequent,  the  land  is  closely  cultivated,  afford- 
ing less  of  real  range,  more  of  excessive  grain  diet  and 
more  of  a  tendency  to  annoy  neighbors  with  a  flock. 
In  either  case,  careful  attention  is  required  to  bring 
them  home  each  night  or  until  they  come  home  of 
their  own  accord.  A  choice  feed  at  night  with  a  some- 
what natural  roosting  place  will  often  combine  to 
turn  them  homeward  at  the  setting  of  the  sun. 

An  enclosure  for  turkeys  should  be  as  nearly  ideal 
as  possible  to  obtain  the  best  results.  It  must  be 
roomy.  A  small  woodland,  orchard  or  other  ground 
covered  with  trees  or  vines  for  shade  makes  a  good 
yarding  place.  Make  them  a  good,  comfortable  roost- 
ing place  protected  from  storm  and  high  winds,  not 
too  close  to  the  ground,  as  a  turkey  believes  in  keep- 
ing out  of  the  way  of  prowlers  of  any  type.  The 
larger  the  yards,  the  more  contented  the  inmates. 
The  woodland  has  an  added  advantage  for  a  turkey 
park  in  that  it  makes  an  ideal  place  for  young  poults 


360  SCIENCK   AND   ArT  OF    POULTRY    CULTURE 

to  run  in  the  early  morning  l)efore  the  dew  is  off  the 
grass. 

A  fence  for  a  turkey  park  is  usually  placed  about 
eight  feet  high  to  hold  the  young  until  they  acquire 
some  size.  The  older  birds  may  be  paddled.  This 
consists  of  taking  a  piece  of  thin  board,  alx)ut  three 
or  four  inches  wide  and  long  enough  to  reach  across 
the  turkey's  back  from  wing  to  wing.  In  each  end 
bore  two  holes  near  the  sides.  Catch  the  bird,  lay  the 
board  across  its  back,  pass  a  cloth  strip  down  through 
one  hole,  under  its  wing,  back  up  through  the  oppo- 
site hole  on  the  same  end  and  tie  the  ends  of  the 
cloth  securely.  Repeat  the  same  process  with  the 
other  wing.  Sometimes  a  lath  is  used,  in  wdiich  one 
hole  exists  at  each  end.  The  main  idea  is  to  allow 
the  free  ends  of  the  paddle  to  pass  beyond  the  wings 
far  enough  to  prevent  the  wings  lifting.  It  must  not 
be  too  loose  for  value,  nor  yet  tight  enough  to  make 
sores  under  the  wing.  Examine  the  hobbled  birds 
once  in  a  while  to  insure  comfort.  Clipping  the  wings 
of  the  hens  interferes  with  her  setting  and  brooding 
well.     Neither  is  necessary  with  covered  yards. 

In  case  of  yarding,  it  is  well  to  begin  before  laying 
time  so  the  birds  will  become  accustomed  to  their 
new  quarters.  If  yarded  during  the  laying  period, 
they  will  often  refuse  to  lay  at  all. 

Housing — The  only  changes  suggested  over  the 
regular  poultry  house  construction  are  as  follows :  the 
openings  should  be  large  enough  for  a  full-grown 
turkey  to  enter  easily,  the  roosts  should  be  somewhat 
higher  with  a  ladder  arrangement  for  paddled  or 
hobbled  birds  to  reach  the  roosts  which  may  be  a 
little  broader  and  stronger  than  for  chickens,  and 
plenty   of  fresh   air   provided.      Dryness   is   especially 


Turkey  Culture  361 

essential  to  young  poults.  All  other  esentials  of 
housing  have  been  carefully  considered. 

Eggs — The  special  points  about  eggs  to  observe  in 
turkey  culture  are  that  all  eggs  shall  come  from 
sturdy,  vigorous  and  well-chosen  stock,  that  they 
be  of  even  size,  color  and  shape,  that  they  be  gathered 
often  and  that  they  be  well  cared  for  pending  incuba- 
tion. Turning  each  day  is  practiced  by  nearly  all 
breeders. 

A  hen  will  usually  lay  an  average  of  about  thirty- 
five  eggs  annually,  or  about  two  settings.  Some  have 
been  known  to  go  as  high  as  seventy  in  one  year, 
while  others  have  been  almost  non-productive.  About 
fifteen  eggs  is  enough  for  an  ordinary  turkey  hen  to 
cover  well  at  a  setting.  Fertility  usually  runs  quite 
high  in  the  eggs. 

N'esti)ig  and  Incubation — If  the  hens  have  been 
yarded,  the  gathering  of  the  eggs  and  the  arranging 
of  the  nests  are  simplified.  Old  barrels,  nests  behind 
brush  projections,  odd  corners  or  in  secluded  places 
in  buildings  adjacent  to  their  yards  are  suggested. 
Always  arrange  these  possible  nests  so  that  if  natural 
incubation  is  followed  the  hen  may  remain  in  that 
place  for  setting.  A  turkey  hen  is  much  harder  to 
change  about  than  a  chicken  hen.  The  nests  should 
be  high  enough  to  allow  the  hen  standing  room  and 
broad  enough  for  comfort  while  sitting.  A  dry  nest 
is  essential.  Do  not  clip  the  wings  of  a  hen  intended 
for  setting,  since  it  does  not  allow  her  to  give  as 
good  protection  to  her  eggs  or  young. 

Turkey  hens  are  very  sensitive  about  being  dis- 
turbed while  laying  or  sitting  unless  they  are  quite 
tame. 

When  the  flock  is  running  at  large,  care  must  be 


362        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

taken  to  know  the  nesting  places  so  that  the  eggs 
may  be  secured  before  chilling  or  destroyed  by  small 
animals.  As  good  a  way  as  any  is  to  confine  the 
hens  every  few  days  until  about  three  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon  and  upon  being  released  every  hen  possess- 
ing a  nest  will  go  directly  to  it.  In  this  way  all  new 
nests  will  be  found  by  following  at  a  safe  distance. 
When  the  nest  is  robbed,  place  one  china  egg  to 
satisfy  the  mother  hen.  If  the  nest,  as  located,  is  in 
a  satisfactory  place,  or  if  it  can  easily  be  made  so,  then 
the  hen  may  be  allowed  to  sit  there. 

When  the  hen  is  broody  and  is  properly  located, 
either  in  a  yard  or  on  range,  give  her  no  eggs  except 
false  ones  for  a  day  or  two.  Then  dust  her  well  with 
insect  powder  and  if  she  is  not  disturbed  she  may  be 
given  her  quota  of  eggs,  usually  from  thirteen  to 
eighteen.  If  a  hen  is  changed  upon  range,  or  some- 
times in  yards,  they  will  attempt  to  revert  to  the 
former  location.  In  such  case  they  should  be  con- 
fined to  their  nests  for  a  few  days  allowing  them 
food  and  water  at  stated  times  when  attention  can  be 
given  to  replace  them  upon  the  nests  and  again  con- 
fine them.  When  she  returns  of  her  own  accord  for 
two  or  three  times,  one  may  begin  to  relax  their  watch- 
fulness. In  yards  they  sometimes  seem  to  prefer 
some  other  nests,  hence  need  attention.  Dust  each 
hen  every  week  to  insure  freedom  from  lice.  If  on 
range,  try  and  take  a  look  at  the  nest  once  in  a  while 
to  see  if  the  eggs  are  not  broken  or  the  nest  dis- 
arranged. In  case  of  broken  eggs  in  any  nest,  wash 
the  remaining  ones  with  warm  water  and  put  in  fresh 
nesting  materials. 

The  surplus  eggs  may  be  placed  under  chicken  hens 
with   good    success,   allowing   eight   or   nine   to   each. 


Turkey  Culture  363 

Many  claim  better  results  with  turkey  hens,  while 
others  use  both  for  incubation  purposes,  giving  all  the 
poults  to  the  turkeys  to  brood.  Artificial  incubation 
and  brooding  are  being  practiced  with  the  best  of 
success.  The  only  variation  is  in  the  fact  that  the 
incubation  period  is  twenty-eight  days,  and  that 
closer  attention  for  like  results  is  required  for  both 
incubation  and  brooding.  The  reason  seems  to  be 
that  turkey  young  are  less  hardy  than  the  young  of 
chickens  or  ducks. 

Do  not  try  to  bring  a  hatch  ofif  before  May,  as  often 
much  wet  weather  comes  in  April.  When  the  twenty- 
eight  days  are  about  up,  dust  the  hen  for  the  last  time 
and  be  careful  not  to  put  too  much  in  the  nest  and 
fluff  to  cause  the  little  poults  to  be  uncomfortable 
while  hatching.  If  the  bird  is  very  tame,  the  hand 
may  be  run  under  her  while  hatching  to  keep  the 
nest  free  from  shells.  Ordinarily  she  had  better  be 
left  alone  at  this  time.  When  the  poults  are  a  day 
old,  they  may  be  taken  from  the  nest,  marked  and  put 
in  the  brooding  quarters. 

Brooding — The  principles  of  brooding  vary  only 
slightly  when  applied  to  poults.  Less  of  artificial 
brooding  is  practiced,  although  when  properly 
handled  it  is  successful.  More  attention  is  required 
in  artificial  brooding  to  see  that  they  are  kept  from 
chilling  and  that  they  return  to  the  brooder  properly 
during  the  day  and  at  night.  For  this  reason,  some 
prefer  natural  brooding.  Ordinary  hens  are  some- 
times used  for  mothers,  although  when  the  poults  are 
a  few  weeks'  old  the  turkey  hen  makes  the  best 
mother  of  the  two.  Many  allow  a  portion  of  the  eggs 
to  be  hatched  by  common  hens  and  then  give  all  the 


364        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

poults  to  a  turkey  hen  whose  poults  hatch  at  the  same 
time. 

At  hatching  time  leave  them  under  the  hen  for  a  day 
at  least,  and  if  incubated  in  a  machine  allow  them  to 
remain  for  thirty-six  hours  or  even  longer.  Upon  re- 
moving them  from  a  nest,  powder  well  the  mother 
hen  and  all  the  poults.  Give  them  a  chance  against 
the  lice  which  seem  to  have  a  preference  for  young 
poults.  Mark  such  as  are  desired  to  be  kept  on  record 
by  a  web  punch  or  such  other  means  preferred.  Each 
chicken  mother  should  not  be  given  more  than  eight, 
while  a  turkey  hen  may  be  given  nearly  twenty.  Do 
not  crowd  poults.  A  brooder  should  not  be  gi\cn 
more  than  thirty.  The  first  week  in  a  brooder  is  the 
difficult  period.  Care  to  details  will  bring  through  a 
brood  in  nice  shape. 

The  early  home  of  young  turkeys  should  be  dry, 
roomy,  and  free  from  draughts.  A  coop  high  enough  for 
the  comfort  of  the  old  bird  and  large  enough  to  allow 
her  to  walk  about  is  excellent.  Attached  to  this  coop 
should  be  a  covered  runway.  This  allows  freedom 
and  can  be  changed  to  fresh  ground  every  day.  Other 
places  such  as  outbuildings,  barn  basements,  and 
empty  corn  cribs  may  be  utilized  if  they  are  free  from 
rodents. 

When  a  few  days'  old,  the  poults  may  be  allowed 
some  freedom.  They  will  not  go  far  from  the  reach 
of  the  warning  voice  of  the  mother  hen,  and  very 
soon  upon  pleasant  days  the  hen  may  be  allowed  to 
range  about  near  by.  If  in  an  inclosure,  paddle  her  to 
keep  her  within  bounds.  Remember  that  turkey  hens 
will  but  rarely  return  to  a  coop  at  night  without  be- 
ing reminded  of  their  duty  and  will  be  apt  to  stop 
where   night   finds   them.     After   about   three   or   four 


Turkey  Culture  365 

weeks,  free  range  may  be  allowed  the  poults,  unless 
they  are  to  be  kept  yarded.  Each  week  they  should 
be  examined  for  lice  and  powdered  or  greased  upon 
the  head  if  necessary.  Be  careful  in  the  use  of  grease 
not  to  overdo  it. 

After  the  poults  are  about  one-third  grown,  turkey 
hens  make  the  better  mothers.  Even  though  they 
may  not  hover  the  brood  they  keep  the  brood  com- 
pany and  otherwise  care  for  them.  A  domestic  hen 
will  leave  them  entirely  and  the  poults  seem  to  get 
disheartened.  Xor  will  the  poults  raised  by  domestic 
hens  unite  as  well  with  a  flock  of  young  poults  raised 
by  turkey  hens.  The  latter  will  not  abuse  one  an- 
other's young,  even  though  of  different  sizes,  except 
upon  rare  occasions. 

Feeding — If  only  three  or  four  words  were  allowed 
in  instructing  the  beginners  in  turkey  culture,  the 
most  valuable  would  be  "  Do  not  overfeed,"  or  "  Feed 
little  and  often."  These  words  heeded  are  more  im- 
portant than  what  one  shall  feed.  The  first  two  days 
of  a  poult's  life  it  should  have  nothing  but  fresh 
water.     Clean  receptacles  at  all  times  is  imperative. 

The  first  week  they  receive  different  rations  from 
different  breeders  with  the  same  success.  Again, 
care  in  feeding  is  the  main  factor.  Keep  them  hungry 
instead  of  suffering  from  indigestion.  Feed  several 
times  a  day,  but  give  them  very  little  at  a  time.  Stale 
wheat  bread  soaked  in  milk,  custard,  hard  boiled  eggs, 
eggs  baked  with  bread  and  milk,  and  cornbread  are 
the  favorite  foods.  They  are  all  good.  Some  give 
just  a  few  kernels  of  cracked  mixed  grains.  Grit  is 
essential  at  the  beginning  in  very  limited  quantities. 
A  little  shell,  charcoal  and  chopped  greens  should  be 
fed.     The  greens   fed   are   mainly  onions,  dandelions, 


366        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

cabbage  or  lettuce.  A  vegetable  diet  is  very  necessary 
to  poults.  Keep  plenty  of  water  before  them  all  the 
time. 

The  second  week  the  same  diet  is  continued  with  a 
lessening  of  the  cooked  food  and  an  increase  in  the 
cracked  grain.  Wheat,  corn,  sunflower  seed  and  millet 
are  the  grains  most  used.  Other  grains  fed  judiciously 
are  just  as  good.  Cottage  cheese  may  be  given  them 
at  this  time,  butwnot  to  overload  them.  Change  rations 
slowly.  A  little  beef  scrap  may  be  given  them  in 
their  food  at  this  time. 

By  the  third  week  they  will  be  where  more  grain 
and  no  special  food  need  be  given  except  what  cottage 
cheese  and  table  scraps  can  be  spared.  Keep  up  the 
green  food  unless  the  weather  is  such  they  are  able 
to  take  a  daily  run  away  from  the  coop.  With  both 
young  and  mature  turkeys  green  food  is  important. 
Where  plenty  is  given  them  for  their  needs  one  will 
have  but  little  loss  from  their  becoming  crop  bound. 

After  the  third  week  if  they  are  on  range  they  will 
thrive  with  fewer  feedings.  Keep  them  ranging  but 
always  give  them  a  choice  feed  at  night  to  teach  them 
to  come  home  as  well  as  to  keep  them  growing.  A 
light  feeding  in  the  morning  before  they  go  out  is 
well.  Do  not  let  the  mother  hen  go  out  with  them 
while  there  is  a  heavy  dew  until  they  are  well  grown. 
The  matter  of  care  and  feeding  thereafter  is  one  of 
judgment  according  to  the  character  of  the  range.  If 
all  woodland  then  more  grain  is  needed.  If  over 
grain  fields  when  or  after  ripened,  then  less  grain  is 
needed.  If  the  turkeys  are  yarded,  the  balanced  ration 
is  needed  so  that  the  meat  and  green  elements  are 
important. 

In  the  fall  there  should  be  an  effort  to  fatten  those 


Turkey  Culture  367 

meant  for  the  early  market.  All  small  turkeys  should 
be  held  for  the  holiday  trade,  since  small  birds  are 
not  wanted  at  Thanksgiving  time.  To  fatten,  give 
more  corn  and  less  other  grains,  although  do  not  use 
one  grain  exclusively.  Do  not  give  the  corn  suddenly, 
but  feed  it  in  increasing  quantities  until  the  birds  are 
abJe  to  take  it  without  injury.  Watch  them  that  they 
do  not  become  unable  to  eat  it  readily.  A  temporary 
change  of  rations  may  become  needed  at  times. 

The  breeders  should  be  sorted  out  and  kept  from 
the  fattening  diet.  Should  they  become  overfat  they 
should  be  conditioned  quite  a  while  before  used  for 
breeding  purposes.  Do  not  sell  the  early  hatched 
poults  and  keep  the  late  ones  for  breeders  unless  a 
profit  balance  on  the  ledger  is  not  desired. 

A  word  at  this  point  as  to  the  expense  of  raising 
turkeys.  To  say  the  least,  the  grain  fed  and  turned 
into  flesh  is  certainly  worth  more  per  pound  hence  it 
comes  down  entirely  to  the  labor  element.  Each  can 
decide  that  for  himself.  But  before  judgment  is 
passed  think  of  the  bugs,  grasshoppers  and  other 
enemies  to  man  the  range  turkey  consumes  during  a 
season.  Is  this  of  service  and  did  it  cost  much  to  the 
owner?  It  is  estimated  that  yard-raised  turkeys  will 
cost  about  ten  cents  per  pound  to  mature  without 
counting  the  labor,  losses  or  investment.  Therefore, 
each  one  can  decide  what  a  turkey  costs  in  their  local- 
ity by  figuring  up  these  elements  and  adding  it  to  the 
cost  per  pound.  If  they  are  on  range  it  is  certain  that 
ten  cents  is  an  excessive  cost.  Were  it  figured  closely, 
taking  into  consideration  their  being  raised  in  confine- 
ment, it  seems  probable  that  the  average  person  would 
make  more  clear  profit  from  some  other  fowl. 

General  Care — Under  this  heading  will  be  gathered 


368        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

a  few  miscellaneous  ideas  of  value,  some  of  which 
have  already  been  suggested.  Turkeys  are  lovers  of 
liberty  because  they  are  not  long  under  domestic  con- 
ditions and  yet  possess  many  of  their  wild  instincts. 
When  deprived  of  certain  conditions,  of  fresh  air,  and 
when  overfed,  they  soon  succumb  to  disease.  In  other 
words,  they  as  yet  are  harder  to  rear  under  domestic 
conditions  and  it  is  only  when  we  approach  natural 
conditions  that  the  best  of  success  comes. 

Cleanliness  of  all  water  receptacles,  of  food  pans 
and  troughs,  of  droppings,  board,  and  of  yard  grounds 
is  very  important.  The  young  are  tender  and  must  be 
well  protected  from  dampness  and  draught  in  their 
early  housing,  yet  given  plenty  of  fresh  air,  increasing 
its  openness  with  the  age  of  the  poults.  Protect  them 
from  heavy  rainfalls  and  early  dews.  Let  their  brood- 
ing coops  be  roomy,  clean  and  free  from  dampness. 
Remember  the  poults  like  to  roost  early,  and  hence 
provide  them  with  a  suitable  place  before  they  seek 
one  elsewhere.  They  seem  to  instinctively  seek  a 
night  shelter  where  the  evening  shades  find  them 
rather  than  returning  home,  except  when  special 
training  has  been  given.  They  do  much  better  when 
given  quarters  by  themselves  instead  of  being  com- 
pelled to  live  with  other  domestic  fowls. 

The  principal  dangers  one  must  guard  against  are 
diseases  such  as  crop  bound,  blackrot.  blackhead,  and 
indigestion.  The  first  is  mainly  a  lack  of  green  food, 
the  last,  improper  and  surplus  food,  while  the  other 
two  are  treated  under  another  chapter  on  diseases. 
Lice  must  be  diligently  fought  and  four-legged  ani- 
mals foiled.  Many  small  poults  have  been  known  to 
die  from  eating  cherry  and  plum  pits  found  in  orchards 
where  confined. 


Turkey  Culture  369 

Finally,  remember  that  it  is  the  attention  to  the 
details  in  the  early  life  of  the  poult  that  is  really  the 
keynote  to  brooding  and  that  an  ounce  of  forgetfulness 
outweighs  a  good  many  pounds  of  cure.  Like  a 
mother,  one  must  give  the  first  thought  in  the  morn- 
ing and  an  early  thought  in  the  evening  to  the  flock 
or  evil  results  are  sure  to  follow.  Turkey  culture  is 
simple  and  interesting,  yet  exacting. 

Marketing  Turkeys — The  late  fall  and  holiday  sea- 
sons are  the  national  time  to  market  turkeys.  The 
reason  for  this  seems  to  be  that  custom  has  made  this 
savory  meat  paramount  at  Thanksgiving  time  and  al- 
most so  at  the  holiday  season,  while  a  second  reason 
lies  in  the  fact  that  there  is  a  tendency  at  that  time 
to  be  more  free  with  expenditures  which  at  other  sea- 
sons would  seem  extravagant. 

There  is  a  nice  trade  in  both  live  and  dressed  tur- 
keys. Some  markets  prefer  them  alive,  while  others 
refuse  them  except  when  dressed  and  well  packed. 
Live  turkeys  shrink  quite  heavily  in  transit,  which 
accounts  for  the  dissatisfaction  which  arises  over 
many  shipments  which  have  been  weighed  before  be- 
ing consigned.  Do  not  market  small  poults  at 
Thanksgiving  time  as  they  will  be  more  profitable 
ordinarily  if  held  for  the  holidays.  Still  others  sell 
their  entire  output  to  a  private  trade  whose  orders  are 
taken  in  advance. 

Some  breeders  have  built  up  a  nice  business  with 
stock  and  eggs  for  breeding  purposes  w'hile  others 
have  not  been  willing  to  take  the  pains  required  and 
therefore  left  the  ranks  with  discredit  due  to  their 
business  methods. 

Exhibiting  Turkeys — As  in  other  lines  of  poultry, 
ipecial  care  must  be  taken  of  stock  which  is  expected 


Z70        SciKxcE  AND  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

to  win  over  other  entries  whicli  liave  had  every  care 
known  to  the  science.  The  f^eneral  remarks  found 
under  the  chapter  on  "  Conditioning  and  Exhibiting 
Poultr}^"  apply  here,  except  that  less  confinement 
is  needed  if  the  stock  is  fairly  tame.  Every  caution 
as  to  picking  out  the  best,  their  feeding  for  standard 
weight,  their  washing  if  of  the  white  variety,  their 
grooming  and  cleaning,  their  banding  and  shipping, 
their  show  room  care,  and  their  subsequent  treat- 
ment are  all  in  point  and  with  attention  to  detail  it 
will  take  a  better  bird  with  just  as  good  preparation 
to  win. 


Chapter  XXVIL 
GUINEA   FOWLS. 

While  the  Guinea-fowl  has  received  but  scant  attention 
in  this  country,  yet  with  the  limitations  that  are  being 
placed  upon  wild  game,  together  with  the  demand  for 
game-flavored  fowl  by  epicurians,  it  seems  certain  that 
the  Guinea  will  soon  claim  better  recognition. 

The  flesh  when  well  cooked  is  of  a  darker  color  than  that 
of  a  chicken,  is  attractive  in  appearance,  is  tender  and  of 
a  fine,  gamelike  flavor.  In  Europe,  in  the  South,  and 
in  the  large  hotels  the  Guinea  holds  a  place  far  above 
the  average  fowl.  The  connoisseurs  of  meats  will  have 
no  substitutes  for  this  often-despised  barnyard  fowl, 
which  feeling  springs  from  ignorance  as  to  its  true 
merits. 

The  habits  of  the  Guinea  are  such  that  its  good  points 
are  apt  to  be  overlooked.  Its  noisiness  and  ability  to  go 
everywhere  at  will,  as  well  as  its  tendency  toward  self- 
importance,  are  more  than  offset  by  its  ability  to  care 
for  itself,  its  foraging  instincts,  and  its  always  being 
found  in  the  right  place  w^hen  evening  draws  near.  The 
Guinea  is  raised  in  confinement,  yet  it  is  more  easily 
raised  on  a  free  range  and  separately  from  other  fowls. 
In  this  respect  it  differs  little  from  all  other  fowls.  It 
approaches  more  nearly  to  the  turkey  in  manner  of 
handling  than  it  does  to  any  other  fowl.  It  is  often 
accused  of  being  a  quarrelsome  bird  among  other  poultry. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  Guineas,  the  pearl  and 
the  white  leading  all  others.  They  grow  to  a  fair  size, 
371 


372        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

the  adult  birds  weighing;  three  and  four  pounds  each. 
The  age  of  a  Guinea  is  told  mainly  as  in  other  fowls. 
The  flexible  breast  bone,  the  smooth  legs  and  feet,  the 
sharp  claws  and  pointed  wdng  feathers  are  indications 
of  young  stock.  The  eyes  and  face  become  more  wrink- 
led and  the  rich  head-coloring  grows  more  dull  or  pale 
with  age. 

The  housing,  general  care,  foods  and  methods  of  feed- 
ing, as  well  as  the  shipping  of  stock  and  eggs,  vary  lit- 
tle from  the  methods  employed  with  other  poultry. 

Mating — Guineas  mate  in  pairs,  and  the  male  is  a  great 
help  to  the  female  in  caring  for  the  young  brood.  One 
must  be  very  careful  to  keep  away  from  inbreeding, 
yet  the  general  principles  of  breeding  differ  in  no  way 
from  other  poultry. 

Eggs — The  Guinea-fowl  is  apt  to  drop  her  eggs  any- 
where, or  with  another  hen,  until  about  the  time  when 
she  wishes  to  enter  the  incubation  period.  At  this  time 
she  usually  nests  in  some  hidden  or  protected  place,  lay- 
ing an  average  clutch  of  about  fifteen  eggs,  which  she 
will  hatch  in  about  twenty-eight  days.  Fertility  usually 
runs  very  high  and  the  eggs  maintain  vigor  much  longer 
than  the  ordinary  hen's  egg.  No  different  care  is  needed 
in  caring  for  Guinea  eggs  for  incubation  than  for  the 
eggs  of  other  fowls.  No  special  market  exists  for 
Guinea  eggs  in  this  country,  although  many  claim  them 
to  be  superior  for  culinary  purposes.  When  served 
for  table  purposes  their  delicate  flavor  places  them  ahead 
of  the  common  egg.  They  are  soiiiewhat  smaller  than 
the  common  egg, — they  have  a  thicker  shell  and  vary 
in  color  from  white  to  a  dark  brown,  flecked  with  dark- 
er spots.  This  thick  shell  requires  their  freshness  for 
market  purposes  to  be  tested  by  some  other  means  than 
by  candling,  unless  the  facilities  be  above  the  average. 


Guinea  Fowls  373 

Specific  gravity  is  about  the  only  method  available. 
Their  food  value  is  very  similar  to  that  of  other  eggs. 

Incubation  and  Brooding — The  young  are  hardy  and 
free  from  disease  when  on  range  and  require  little  food 
for  a  time  if  the  weather  be  good.  They  are  easily 
raised  if  the  Guinea  hen  incubates  and  broods  them, 
but  more  difficult  to  handle  by  other  means.  Some  few 
operators  use  hens  to  incubate  Guinea  eggs  with  much 
success.  If  allowed  to  handle  incubation  and  brooding 
in  the  natural  way  a  secluded  spot  will  be  chosen  from 
where,  after  twenty-eight  days  the  mother  Guinea  will 
lead  forth  a  brood  of  from  ten  to  twenty  infant  Guin- 
eas. The  father  Guinea  at  once  assists  in  all  the  forag- 
ing expeditions  and  protects  the  mother  from  molesta- 
tion from  other  males.  Several  pairs  and  broods  often 
run  together,  but  at  night  each  brood  goes  to  roost 
with  its  own  mother.  This  instinct  to  forage  begins 
with  their  first  days  and  it  is  surprising  how  the  young- 
sters develop.  If  the  weather  or  other  conditions  do 
not  warrant  this  natural  nesting  and  brooding  then  ap- 
ply the  regular  methods  of  natural  incubation  and  brood- 
ing, handling  them  quietly  and  giving  them  the  best  of 
attention.  When  the  times  comes  that  the  mother  wish- 
es to  teach  them  to  roost,  a  noisy  time  may  be  antici- 
pated until  the  last  member  of  the  brood  has  attained 
a  position  upon  the  family  roost. 

Marketing — The  preparation  of  the  Guinea  for  market 
is  the  same  as  for  other  fowls,  especially  the  chicken. 
The  fattening,  killing,  cooling,  packing  and  shipping 
are  almost  identical.  The  dressing  varies  from  pluck- 
ing and  drawing  to  merely  killing  and  cooling,  depend- 
ing upon  the  market  in  which  the  bird  is  to  be  sold. 
The  unplucked  Guinea  presents  the  best  appearance.  In 
favorable  markets  a  good  profit  is  made  in  the  fall  and 


374        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

winter,  while  in  some  eastern  markets  the  prices  are 
better.  In  the  middle  west  and  in  the  southern  parts 
of  the  United  States  the  prices  are  not  so  high.  The 
broilers  bring  good  prices  in  the  early  spring.  Many 
markets  quote  prices  upon  Guineas  throughout  their 
seasons. 


Chapter  XXVIIL 
RAISING  PIGEONS  AND  SQUABS. 

Like  the  other  branches  of  the  general  poultry  indus- 
try the  raising  of  pigeons  and  squabs  holds  a  peculiar 
attractiveness  to  a  class  of  people  who  are  looking  for  a 
business  which  offers  an  immediate  living  from  a  small 
investment.  This  attitude  is  jointly  brought  about  by 
the  greed  and  unscrupulousness  of  unprofessional  breed- 
ers and  dealers  the  country  over,  whose  literature  reads 
like  a  fairy  tale,  and  the  tendency  of  the  average  public 
to  believe  what  they  read  without  weighing  it  carefully. 
This  result  is  not  the  fault  of  conservative  breeders  of 
pigeons,  although  they  have  to  b,ear  certain  inconven- 
ience and  financial  loss  because  of  the  failures  resulting 
from  the  "  wildcat  "  policies  of  their  dishonest  competi- 
tors. 

That  many  are  making  money  out  of  their  pigeons 
goes  without  saying,  but  as  in  any  other  business  it  is 
"  brains  "  combined  with  a  proper  investment  that  results 
in  success.  If  any  one  desires  to  enter  the  pigeon  or 
squab  byiisiness  as  such  let  him  not  hesitate  to  do  so  if 
he  will  enter  it  with  a  care  to  studying  its  essentials, 
with  a  mind  disabused  of  any  idea  that  he  has  nothing 
but  ease  before  him,  and  with  a  sufficient  capital  to  keep 
enough  pairs  to  insure  steady  deliveries.  In  short  it  is 
purely  a  business  proposition  stripped  of  all  enchant- 
ment. However,  one  may  start  with  a  few  pairs,  taking 
less  profit  but  obtaining  experience  at  the  least  risk  of 
financial  loss.    What  follows  we  trust  will  assist  in  a  safe 

375 


Z7(^ 


Science  axd  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


and  sane  consideration  of  the  business  The  same  prin- 
ciples as  found  in  other  chapters  regarding  choosing  a 
location,  breeding,  buildings,  marketing,  and  diseases, 
also  apply  in  this  industry  except  as  herein  stated  to  the 
contrary. 

There  are  two  main  branches  of  the  pigeon  industry: 
the  sale  of  breeding  birds  and  the  raising  of  squabs  for 


CRESTED   HELMET. 
Courtesy  of  A.   E.   Robst. 

the  market.  A  bird  beyond  tlic  squab  period  becomes 
less  valuable  unless  it  is  to  be  kept  for  a  breeder.  Of 
the  large  number  of  varieties  of  pigeons  the  Homer 
seems  to  be  the  favorite  for  squab-raising.     Many  vari- 


Guinea  Fowls  377 

eties  are  kept  only  for  their  beauty  and  for  exhibition 
purposes,  while  several  are  used  for  the  commercial  end 
of  the  business.  Avoid  crossing  of  varieties.  A  pure 
strain  kept  in  vigor  is  without  doubt  the  best  method 
since  the  principles  of  breeding  combined  with  intelli- 
gence will  insure  success.  In  this  respect  the  poultry 
business  is  upon  a  par  with  the  breeding  of  any  domestic 
stock.  Like  begets  like,  and  the  only  good  that  cross- 
breeding can  bring  about  is  to  impose  new  strength  and 
vigor  into  the  lofts,  which  can  be  more  easily  accom- 
plished by  adding  good  standard  blood.  Pigeons  may 
be  kept  as  a  side  line  or  with  poultry  with  both  pleasure 
and  profit. 

Tlic  Breeding  Stock — Obtaining  poor  foundation  stock 
has  resulted  in  more  "  squab  "  failures  than  any  other 
one  cause  imless  it  be  ignorance  of  the  essentials  of  the 
business.  The  latter  might  have  been  overcome  but  the 
former  never. 

Poor  breeding  stock  results  from  any  of  numerous 
causes.  The  vender  may  have  been  a  mere  broker  who 
buys  from  any  source  to  resell.  The  birds  may  never 
have  been  line-bred.  The  lofts  may  have  been  infected 
with  roup,  cancer  or  other  diseases  which  weakens  the 
constitution  and  makes  a  bad  history  for  breeders.  They 
may  have  been  chosen  from  the  late  birds  which  are  often 
weakly.  They  ma\-.  have  been  from  haphazard  matings 
with  nothing  known  as  to  their  vigor  or  productivity, 
or  the  mating  may  have  been  too  young  to  breed  for 
pigeon  stock. 

The  desirable  breeding  stock  should  be  from  a  reliable 
and  trustworthy  breeder  who  absolutely  knows  his  birds 
and  their  record.  They  should  be  from  strong,  mature, 
vigorous  and  productive  parentage,  which  has  been  line- 
bred.    They  should  be  hatched  during  the  natural  breed- 


378        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

ing  season  of  April  and  May,  when  their  development 
will  be  quick  and  vigorous,  regardless  of  the  price  of 
squabs  at  that  time.  The  parentage  and  lofts  should 
be  free  from  all  vermin  and  disease.  Abnormally  pro- 
ductive parentage  should  be  avoided  as  their  offspring  is 
usually  weak.  Well  bred,  well  tended  and  vigorous  par- 
entage will  insure  a  good  foundation  stock. 

Then  arises  the  query,  How  shall  such  stock  be  ob- 
tained? This  is  not  so  easily  answered.  The  first  effort 
will  be  to  find  a  trustworthy  breeder  having  stock  for 
sale.  If  one  is  not  personally  known  the  next  best  plan 
is  to  make  haste  slowly  until  one  is  satisfied  on  that  point. 
We  assume  the  variety  has  been  decided  upon  but  the 
matter  of  age  is  also  very  important.  Many  advocate 
purchasing  "  working  mates,"  a  term  employed  for  pig- 
eons which  have  mated  and  are  breeding.  This  is  a 
satisfactory  method,  but  no  breeder  can  guarantee 
"  working  mates,"  since  the  change  may  result  in  break- 
ing up  the  mating.  For  honest  working  mates  of  good 
quality  a  liberal  price  must  be  paid  to  insure  both  quality 
and  proper  age.  Pigeons  are  at  their  best  between  the 
ages  of  two  and  seven  years.  One  can  afford  to  pay  a 
liberal  price  per  pair  for  birds  which  are  two  years  old 
rather  than  paying  one-half  as  much  for  birds  whose 
breeding  capacity  has  been  drained.  Young  stock  have 
a  whole  lifetime  ahead  of  them. 

The  method  of  obtaining  breeding  stock  as  practiced 
by  breeders  of  Europe  and  by  many  in  America  is  to 
buy  them  from  the  nests.  Place  an  order  with  a  reliable 
breeder  who  will  ship  an  equal  number  of  males  and 
females  according  to  specifications  in  the  order.  They 
will  arrive  when  but  few  days  older  than  prime  squabs. 
Cull  out  any  not  considered  standard  and  place  the  rest 
together  in  temporary  quarters  or  in  the  regular  loft.     If 


Guinea  Fowls  379 

placed  in  the  regular  quarters  separation  of  non-mating 
or  other  undesirable  birds  will  be  more  difficult.  In  a 
few  days  the  birds  will  begin  to  mate  and  when  it  is 
a  certain  fact  that  a  pair  are  working  mates  catch,  band 
and  remove  them  to  their  regular  loft  where  they  can 
begin  work.  In  this  way  a  loft  of  truly  mated  pairs  will 
be  built  up  permanently.  Give  the  birds  time  to  mate 
well  before  removing.  There  is  nothing  gained  by  hur- 
rying them.  By  this  plan  only  mated  birds  will  be  in 
the  loft.  The  advantages  of  this  method  are  that  better 
and  more  permanent  matings  result,  the  birds'  entire 
productive  period  is  utilized,  more  satisfactory  stock  is 
assured  at  a  much  cheaper  cost,  they  become  accustomed 
to  their  new  quarters  more  readily  than  older  birds  and 
the  transaction  usually  proves  more  satisfactory  to  both 
vender  and  vendee.  The  only  objection  ever  raised  is 
that  the  females  being  more  delicate,  and  also  a  light 
mortality  existing  among  young  stock,  the  matings  are 
often  broken  up.  This  objection  is  not  a  serious  one 
as  all  unmated  birds  are  taken  from  the  breeding  lofts 
at  once  since  they  disturb  the  peace  of  the  loft. 

Eggs  are  sometimes  sold  for  breeding,  but  this  never 
proves  to  be  a  satisfactory  method  of  buying  new  blood. 
Many  new  varieties  have  been  introduced,  but  it  is  bet- 
ter to  begin  with  an  established  variety  and  strain.  The 
general  care  of  the  breeding  lofts  and  of  the  breeders  is 
the  same  as  for  other  fowls,  with  the  added  caution 
against  unduly  disturbing  the  birds. 

Mating — Nearly  all  varieties  of  pigeons  usually  mate 
for  life  when  such  mating  has  been  natural  and  free 
choice  has  been  given.  It  is  also  claimed  by  reliable 
breeders  that  related  pigeons  will  not  mate  if  other 
choice  is  allowed  them.  They  are  constant  and  home- 
loving   mates.      However,   there   are   exceptions   to   this 


380        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

general  rule.  When  matings  are  forced,  when  the  selec- 
tion is  very  limited  or  when  removed  to  new  quarters 
there  often  occur  separations  and  subsequent  remating 
with  other  birds.  There  often  appear  abnormal  males  or 
females  which  will  not  mate  at  all ;  also  some  males  will 
drive  more  than  one  female,  and  there  are  females  which 
receive  attentions  from  more  than  one  male.  Any  such 
tendencies  should  at  once  be  suppressed  by  removing  the 
transgressors  from  the  loft. 

ISecause  of  the  greater  delicacy  of  the  females  there 
is  usually  a  greater  per  cent  of  males  than  there  ought 
to  be  in  a  loft.  These  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  dis- 
covered. It  is  quite  an  impossible  matter  for  the  beginner 
to  sort  out  mated  pairs  and  to  distinguish  sex  in  a  loft 
containing  a  number  of  pigeons.  Even  with  two  persons 
to  follow  the  pair  caught  driving  mistakes  often  occur 
and  an  unmated  pair  placed  in  the  regular  loft.  A  com- 
mon mistake  of  beginners  is  to  take  love-making  for 
mating.  A  male  may  be  teasing  and  enticing  a  female 
and  yet  not  be  mated.  When  the  male  is  caught  driving 
a  female,  when  they  begin  to  build  a  nest  and  when  they 
roost  together  (or  one  in  the  nest  with  the  other  above 
or  near  by)  then  the  mating  is  an  assured  fact  and 
removal  is  justified.  Too  early  removal  often  breaks  up 
a  mated  pair.  Never  place  working  mates  in  a  perma- 
nent loft  without  banding  and  recording  each.  Band 
males  on  the  right  leg  and  females  upon  the  left  leg. 
If  either  dies  the  band  and  record  show  the  sex  and  the 
unmated  bird  can  be  much  more  easily  detected  since 
only  the  half  of  the  birds  bearing  bands  upon  the  oppo- 
site leg  to  that  on  the  dead  mate  need  be  caught  to  find 
the  band  number  sought.  Never  leave  an  unmated  bird 
among  working  mates.     Instead  of  taking  out  the  un- 


Guinea  Fowls  381 

mated  bird  some  place  another  in  the  same  loft  and  trust 
to  the  immated  birds  to  mate. 

In  buying  pigeons  from  dealers  one  must  beware  of 
terms  used.  Some  advertise  pairs,  meaning  two  regard- 
less of  sex ;  others  adopt  such  terms  as  "  band-mated  " 
and  "  special-mated,"  which  are  birds  placed  together 
until  they  take  up  with  each  other.  "  Mated  pigeons  " 
and  "  guaranteed  mated  "  usually  mean  pigeons  taken 
while  driving.  If  the  term  "  working  mates  "  is  used 
there  should  be  no  misunderstanding  as  to  its  meaning 
and  all  the  above  terms  used  in  pigeons-breeding  should 
in  all  justice  be  synonymous  with  '*  working  mates,"  or 
instant  mates  which  are  actually  producing  stock,  since 
this  is  the  interpretation  of  all  terms  by  the  uninitiated. 

Young  pigeons  mate  very  early,  but  this  should  be 
discouraged  as  much  as  possible  since  the  first  few 
hatches  are  often  quite  weak  and  the  squabs  are  small 
in  size.  The  mating  often  begins  at  three  months  with 
a  nest  of  squabs  at  eight  months.  Full  vigor  should  be 
gained  at  two  years  of  age  after  which  breeding  stock 
may  be  produced  with  good  results.  If  the  squabs  of  a 
particular  mating  result  in  dark  skins  the  mating  should 
be  broken  up  and  remating  take  place.  Dark  beaks  and 
feet  are  usually  begetters  of  dark-skinned  squabs,  but 
not  so  with  the  plumage  which  is  often  jet  black,  yet 
clear  white-skinned  squabs  result.  Never  mate  off  col- 
ored nor  defective  birds,  as  the  effects  will  follow  for 
many  generations.  One  should  not  be  discouraged  if 
five  per  cent  of  the  young  breeders  die  during  their  early 
months.  AA^atch  the  lofts  very  closely  for  any  abnomial 
tendencies  in  the  matings. 

Ef^gs,  Iiicitbofioii  and  Brooding — Both  male  and  fe- 
male of  working  mates  assist  in  nest-building,  in  incu- 
bating and  brooding.     The  female  usually  occupies  the 


382        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

nest  at  nij^^ht.  The  nest  is  composed  of  twi.c^s,  straw, 
dried  grass  and  other  similar  material.  Tobacco  stems 
are  used  exclusively  by  many  to  avert  lice.  Pigeons 
usally  lay  two  eggs,  a  day  apart,  and  begin  brooding  at 
once.  There  often  occur  infertile  and  weak-germed  eggs, 
yet  the  percentage  is  light.  The  period  of  incubation  cov- 
ers seventeen  to  eighteen  days.  When  the  hatch  comes  off 
it  is  claimed  that  a  male  and  female  squab  are  the  usual 
result  and  when  a  little  older  they  may  be  told  apart  in 
the  nest  by  the  pugnacity  of  the  male  and  the  timidity 
of  the  female.  If  this  be  true,  to  keep  their  sex  identity, 
one  may  clip  the  wing  of  one  sex  or  the  opposite  wing 
of  each  sex.  If  either  dies  it  is  usually  the  female.  ]\Iany 
breeders  consolidate  the  squabs  that  are  left  alone  in 
nests  combining  only  squabs  of  equal  ages. 

A  young  pigeon  is  a  squab  until  it  begins  to  fly  and 
its  beak  hardens.  It  is  ready  to  market  just  before  it 
leaves  the  nest  when  the  feathers  under  the  wing  are 
developed.  This  is  usually  about  the  end  of  the  fourth 
week  although  the  strain,  the  variety  and  the  weather 
have  much  to  do  with  the  development.  The  first  month 
after  leaving  the  nest  there  is  often  as  high  as  a  twenty 
per  cent  mortality  among  the  young  pigeons.  A  high 
class  wholesome  feed  ration  influences  results  in  squab 
raising  very  materially. 

The  new  nest  or  a  new  family  or  both  are  often  started 
before  the  young  squabs  are  ready  to  market,  and  in 
fact  the  new  nest  is  started  as  soon  as  the  pigeon-milk 
diet  for  the  squabs  ceases.  However,  the  young  birds 
are  not  neglected  as  long  as  they  are  on  the  nest  and  are 
often  fed  while  on  the  floor.  The  average  number  of 
pairs  to  each  working  mating  is  from  three  to  six  per 


Guinea  Fowls  383 

year.  As  high  as  fourteen  pairs  have  been  known,  but 
this  is  very  unusual  and  weak  offspring  results. 

Foods  and  Feeding — The  first  five  or  six  days  the 
young  birds  are  given  nothing  but  "  pigeon-milk  "'  from 
the  crop  of  the  old  bird.  Both  male  and  female  assist 
in  feeding  the  squabs  until  they  can  care  for  themselves. 
About  the  sixth  da}'  the  old  birds  begin  giving  the  young 
birds  an  almost  exclusive  grain  diet.  The  young  squabs 
to  do  well  must  have  their  meals  regularly  and  there- 
fore an  attendant  should  feed  early  in  the  morning  and 
again  in  the  middle  of  the  afternoon  so  that  the  old  birds 
may  have  sufficient  time  to  feed  the  broods  before  dark- 
ness sets  in.  Fresh  water  twice  daily  in  clean  dishes  is 
necessary.  Furnish  a  dish  of  water  for  bathing  purposes 
during  the  summer,  but  see  that  it  is  emptied  within  an 
hour  of  the  time  given  to  keep  the  birds  from  using  it 
for  drinking  purposes.  A  dish  each  of  grit,  salt,  charcoal 
and  oyster  shell  should  always  be  before  them. 

As  to  the  main  ration  of  a  pigeon,  it  should  be  of  the 
best  grain  and  perfectly  sweet.  New  and  musty  grain 
are  both  injurious  to  squabs.  Feed  what  they  will  clean 
up  unless  they  are  at  liberty,  when  place  feed  constantly 
before  them  to  keep  them  away  from  set-traps  and  other 
lofts.  Do  not  try  to  economize  on  feed,  as  such  economy 
is  expensive.  The  average  cost  per  annum  to  feed  each 
pair  of  breeders  is  about  $1.50,  not  counting  labor  or 
investment.  The  balanced  ration  suggested  may  be 
varied  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  locality  and  availability 
of  the  ingredients.  Do  not  drop  out  the  peas,  wheat  or 
corn,  and  during  molt  the  hemp  seed  and  millet  seed 
are  essential.  Combine  hard  wheat  thirty  per  cent, 
cracked  corn  ten  per  cent,  buckwheat  ten  per  cent,  Can- 
ada peas  fifteen  per  cent,  Kaffir  corn  ten  per  cent,  hulled 
oats  ten  per  cent,  millet  seed  five  per  cent,  hemp  seed 


3S4        Science  axd  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

five  per  cent  and  beef  scrap  five  per  cent.  Hopper  feed- 
ing is  not  satisfactory  to  the  majority  of  breeders. 

Loft  and  Fly — The  principles  governing-  the  building 
of  a  pigeon  loft  differs  in  no  way  from  general  poultry- 
house  construction.  The  only  recommendation  for  pig- 
eons would  be  a  double  floor  one  foot  from  the  ground, 
rat-proof  and  free  from  draughts.  An  alleyway  should 
be  arranged,  although  not  an  absolute  necessity.  It  is  an 
added  means  for  giving  the  birds  freedom  and  quiet  sur- 
roundings. Partitions  between  lofts  should  be  boarded 
to  the  top  of  the  room.  Above  these  divisions  should 
be  stretched  poultry  netting  to  form  a  ceiling  to  the 
lofts,  the  space  above  giving  excellent  ventilation.  Too 
much  glass  is  not  well,  nor  openings  which  allow  of 
draughts.  The  fly  or  yard  should  be  the  width  of  the 
house,  eight  feet  high,  and  about  twenty-five  feet  long, 
house,  eight  feet  high,  and  about  twenty-five  feet  long, 
and  of  inch  wire  mesh  to  exclude  the  English  sparrow. 
The  longer  the  yard  or  fly  the  more  freedom  given  the 
inmates. 

The  capacity  of  each  loft  will  depend  upon  the  indi- 
vidual and  the  buildings.  A  floor  space  of  one  and  one- 
half  square  feet  to  each  pair  and  a  fly  space  of  about 
six  square  feet  per  bird  make  an  excellent  house  for 
them.  How  many  pairs  should  be  in  each  loft  is  a 
debated  question,  but  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  pairs 
seem  to  be  the  better  number,  although  a  few  claim  as 
high  as  one  hundred  and  fifty  pairs  do  just  as  well. 
About  thirty-five  pairs  in  each  loft  has  the  most  advo- 
cates. 

The  usual  feed.  grit,  shell,  water  and  other  recep- 
tacles are  used.  A  bath  tray  is  also  needed.  Roosts  are 
little  used  in  the  house  and  four-inch  roosts  in  the  fly  give 
the  birds  a  chance  for  a  dailv  sun  bath.     Xests  should 


Guinea  Fowls 


385 


PLAIN  HELMET. 
Courtesy  of  A.  E.   Robst. 


386        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

number  nearly  double  as  many  as  there  are  birds  and 
a  handy  arrangement  that  draws  out  and  cleans  easily 
should  be  provided.  The  sizes  of  the  nests  usually  run 
twelve  by  twelve  by  twenty  inches.  This  gives  ample 
room  for  nesting  and  brooding.  No  artificial  heat  should 
be  supplied.  Fresh  air  without  draughts  is  essential. 
Ventilate  by  cloth  openings.  Have  an  alighting  board 
each  side  of  the  exit. 

All  birds  when  changed  should  be  given  permanent 
quarters  quite  early  so  that  they  may  become  used  to 
them  and  get  down  to  business  at  once.  The  first  open- 
ing they  leave  will  be  home  to  them  and  to  that  point 
they  will  return.  These  permanent  buildings  should  not 
cost  to  exceed  $1.50  to  $2.00  per  pair,  and  each  year 
depreciation  should  be  figured  to  replace  the  building 
when  worn  out  or  decayed. 

Care — Pigeons  should  be  given  close  observation  daily 
to  see  that  all  is  progressing  well.  Vermin  should  be 
kept  away,  for  if  once  present  much  difficulty  will  be 
found  in  getting  rid  of  it.  All  new  stock  should  be  quar- 
antined and  if  necessary  treated  before  being  introduced 
into  the  lofts.  See  that  food  and  water  are  regularly 
given.  Each  flock  should  be  of  the  same  age  for  best 
results,  and  also  when  a  loft  is  too  old  for  breeding  it 
can  all  be  sold  at  once  and  a  new  flock  placed  therein. 
Flocks  of  the  same  age  breed  better  and  get  along  more 
peacefully.  Pigeons  should  be  kept  congenial  and  as 
free  from  molestation  as  is  practicable. 

The  premises  should  be  kept  sweet  and  clean.  How 
often  the  lofts  and  yards  should  be  cleaned  is  not  agreed 
upon  by  breeders.  Some  clean  often  while  others  clean 
but  once  a  month.  There  is  a  happy  medium  which 
will  fit  each  plant  when  the  local  conditions  are  studied. 
Disturb  the  birds  no  more  often  than  is  necessary. 


Guinea  Fowls  387 

The  time  taken  for  an  average  two  hundred-pair  plant 
will  be  about  two  hours  each  day  and  one  full  day  to 
care  for  the  marketing  of  squabs  and  cleaning  up  gen- 
erally. 

Killing  and  Dressing — Squabs  are  usually  ready  for 
market  at  four  weeks  of  age  if  the  matings  have  been 
vigorous  and  the  weather  not  too  severe.  The  variety 
and  strain  will  also  have  some  effect  upon  the  maturing 
of  the  young  stock.  When  ready  for  market  they  should 
be  fully  feathered  under  the  wings.  They  should  still 
have  soft  beaks  and  be  unable  to  fly  from  the  nest.  If 
killed  too  early  they  are  classed  as  "  soft  "  and  heavily 
discounted.  If  they  are  allowed  to  remain  too  long  they 
will  be  classed  as  pigeons  and  sold  as  such  at  a  loss. 
Squabs  begin  to  decrease  in  weight  at  once  after  they 
are  ready  to  leave  the  nest. 

The  killing  is  done  by  bleeding  at  the  mouth,  although 
some  pull  the  neck.  For  nearly  all  markets  they  must 
be  plucked.  After  plucking  they  are  chilled,  graded, 
inspected  and  tied  by  the  feet  in  bunches  of  six  or  packed 
in  a  box  in  neat  order.  If  sent  any  distance  they  should 
be  packed  in  layers  of  ice.  Do  not  put  odd  sizes  together 
or  dark  skinned  squabs  in  the  regular  bunches  as  they 
will  be  accepted  only  at  a  heavy  discount.  Empty  crops 
are  secured  by  gathering  the  squabs  before  feeding  time. 

Markets  and  Prices — Breeding  stock  is  marketed  at 
any  time  of  the  year,  but  the  summer  and  fall  sees  the 
bulk  of  shipments  made.  Where  "  birds  out  of  nest  " 
are  to  be  shipped  they  are  usually  taken  from  the  nests 
and  fed  a  week  before  sending  away.  The  same  meth- 
ods are  employed  in  disposing  of  pigeon-breeding  stock 
as  in  other  poultry,  and  the  chapters  upon  that  subject 
will  apply  here  in  most  part.     Breeders  command  per 


388        Science  axd  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

working  pair  from  $2.00  to  $25.00  for  good  stock  from 
a  well-known  or  reliable  breeder. 

The  marketing  of  squabs  is  not  difficult  in  any  large 
city.  If  they  are  of  good  size,  well  dressed  and  attract- 
ively packed  they  will  command  a  ready  sale  at  a  good 
price.  They  are  classified  in  the  markets  by  weight  and 
quoted  by  the  dozen.  Light  birds  are  cut  heavily  in 
price  and  heavier  squabs  are  not  given  their  just  dues  at 
all  times.  To  command  a  high  price  a  person  must  be 
able  to  furnish  a  steady  quantity  and  of  a  good  quality 
weighing  from  eight  to  ten  pounds  per  dozen.  The 
season  of  high  prices  is  during  January,  February  and 
March.  Four  dollars  per  dozen  is  not  uncommon  for 
good  squabs  on  a  steady  output. 

Do  not  attempt  to  put  other  than  white-skinned  birds 
upon  the  average  squab  market.  Fashionable  clubs,  ho- 
tels and  restaurants  are  the  best  private  customers  where 
one  is  able  to  make  a  contract  for  a  given  supply. 


Chapter  XXIX. 
PHEASANT   CULTURE. 

The  writer's  knowledge  of  pheasants  had  its  incep- 
tion a  few  years  ago  while  residing  in  the  American 
home  of  the  China  pheasant,  the  Willamette  Valley  in 
the  State  of  Oregon.  Early  one  morning  while  flying 
past  the  residence  of  a  neighbor,  a  China  pheasant  cock 
struck  the  telephone  wires,  dislocating  its  neck.  Pick- 
ing it  up  the  neighbor  brought  it  over  to  show  to  the 
writer.  A  more  beautiful  bird  would  be  difficult  to  im- 
agine. 

In  Europe  the  pheasant  has  been  propagated  in  cap- 
tivity for  a  considerable  period,  all  the  large  game  pre- 
serves being  restocked  for  several  decades.  As  in  the 
case  of  certain  other  fowls  its  introduction  into  the 
United  States  has  been  quite  recent.  Anything  like  suc- 
cessful introduction  dates  from  the  year  1882  when 
Judge  Denny,  of  Oregon,  then  United  States  Consul  Gen- 
eral at  Shanghai,  China,  sent  a  shipment  of  China  pheas- 
ants which  were  liberated  in  the  Willamette  Valley. 
They  were  a  native  of  northern  China.  For  sever 
years  they  were  protected  by  law;  then  an  open  season 
each  year  was  granted  to  sportsmen.  So  rapidly  did 
they  multiply  that  during  the  open  season  each  year, 
it  is  estimated  that  fully  one-half  million  China  pheas- 
ants are  killed.  This  is  in  the  face  of  considerable  law- 
breaking,  although  the  farmers  are  lending  effective 
aid  to  the  State  authorities  against  this  evil. 

Many  sportsmen  claim  the  pheasant  to  be  the  gamiest 
389 


390  SCIENCR   AND  ArT  OF   POULTRY   CuLTURR 

bird  in  existence  and  without  well  trained  dogs  the 
pheasant  is  in  Httle  danger.  Its  tendency  to  stay  in 
open  country,  its  ability  to  keep  away  from  a  dog  when 
winged  and  its  cunning  when  danger  is  near,  all  tend 
to  make  the  pheasant  the  delight  of  the  true  hunter.  Its 
beauty,  its  harmlessness  to  crops,  its  value  as  an  in- 
sect scavenger  and  its  delicacy  of  flesh  recommend  it 
for  stocking  any  portion  of  the  civilized  world,  since 
the  hardier  varieties  do  well  as  far  north  as  Canada 
and  Sweden. 

Varieties — The  leading  varieties  or  those  classed  so, 
pheasants  regardless  of  a  true  scientific  basis,  are  Chi- 
nese, English,  Golden,  Silver,  Reeves,  Amherst,  Jap- 
anese, Mongolian,  Soemerings,  Swinhoe  and  many 
others.  The  Chinese  and  English  seem  to  be  the  chosen 
game  birds,  while  the  others  are  bred  more  for  orna- 
ment or  exhibition.  The  females  of  all  varieties  do  not 
approach  the  males  for  beauty.  The  favorites  for  beauty 
are  the  Chinese  and  Golden.  The  former  is  in  full 
plumage  at  five  or  six  months  old,  while  the  second  year 
finds  the  Golden  at  his  best.  The  English  is  also  a  hand- 
some cock.  The  pheasant's  grace  and  its  plumage  of 
delicately  blended  colors  are  not  capable  of  description 
and  it  would  be  folly  to  attempt  it.  Let  each  person  see 
one  and  feel  the  truth  of  the  above  statement. 

The  Chinese  and  the  English  are  very  similar  in  size 
and  traits,  yet  the  former  is  perhaps  more  timid  than  the 
latter.  The  Golden  is  less  timid  and  has  a  somewhat 
higher  coloring.  The  Reeves  are  noted  for  their  long, 
beautiful  tail  feathers.  The  others  are  all  attractive. 
The  sales  of  eggs  and  stock  are  greatest  from  the  first 
three  named,  while  the  others  bring  higher  prices  be- 
cause they  lay  fewer  eggs  and  are  considered  more 
difficult  to  raise. 


Pheasant  Culture  591 

Place  of  Confinement — It  is  very  desirable  in  raising 
pheasants  in  captivity  to  allow  each  of  them  to  have 
sixty  square  feet  of  space,  although  some  give  them  less. 
Arrange  for  the  maximum  of  dryness  and  sunshine. 
Keep  the  premises  clean  and  fresh.  The  only  building 
furnished  in  mild  climates  is  a  shed  which  comes  low 
enough  to  keep  out  heavy  rains  and  any  excess  of  wind. 
In  dry  climates  a  low  evergreen  tree  is  sometimes  the 
only  protection.  In  cold  climates  it  is  better  to  give 
the  birds  a  good  protection.  Grown  pheasants  are  very 
hardy  and  in  a  wild  state  rarely  seek  trees  at  night. 
They  often  roost  upon  the  ground  and  seem  to  prefd 
a  place  to  roost  where  thy  can  see  above  and  around 
them.  Because  of  this  tendency  they  will  often  roost 
in  the  yards  instead  of  in  the  buildings  until  taught. 

The  yard  fence  should  be  of  boards  for  one  or  two 
feet,  above  which  should  be  inch  mesh  wire.  One  has 
the  choice  of  covering  the  pens  or  of  clipping  the  flight 
feathers  of  the  wings  to  prevent  flight.  All  wire  should 
be  loosely  attached  to  prevent  injury  to  the  birds  when 
they  become  frightened  and  thus  fly  against  the  wires. 
Arrange  gates  and  doors  to  close  quickly  as  pheasants  are 
very  active  and  quick  in  motion.  In  all  other  respects 
the  general  principles  of  poultry  house  construction 
apply. 

Mating — Pheasants  differ  somewhat  in  mating  char- 
acteristics. The  China  cock  will  mate  with  three  or 
four  hens.  So  will  some  other  varieties.  The  cock  bird 
should  be  changed  once  in  a  while  to  make  him  the 
most  attentive.  Care  must  be  exercised  that  males  do 
not  get  together  during  the  breeding  season,  since  om- 
only  will  survive  the  battle  that  is  sure  to  follow.  Sil- 
vers and  Swinhoes  are  mated  in  pairs.  The  tendency 
in  wild  pheasants  is  to  mate  in  pairs,  the  cock  bird  often 


392        SciEXCE  AXD  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

assisting  in  the  care  of  the  brood.  In  stocking  estates, 
birds  should  be  selected  and  liberated  by  pairs  for  the 
best  success.  The  Chinese,  English,  Japanese,  ]\Ion- 
golian.  Reeves  and  similar  varieties  will  breed  the  first 
spring,  while  the  Golden  and  Amherst  should  be  older 
and  the  Silver  and  Swinhoe  are  mated  at  two  years  of 
age.  I\Iany  males  are  quite  fearless  during  the  breeding 
season,  even  attacking  the  attendant  with  much  violence 
at  times. 

^SS^  of  Pheasants — In  the  Willamette  Valley  tht 
pheasant  nests  in  the  tangles  of  brush  and  grass  where 
it  takes  an  adept  to  discover  themT  The  nesting  takes 
place  in  any  country  during  the  natural  breeding  season 
for  birds  and  and  two  or  three  broods  of  about  fifteen 
chicks  each,  in  a  season  are  common.  Some  of  the 
eggs  are  of  a  greenish  tint,  others  nearly  white,  and  are 
the  size  of  an  average  Bantam  Qgg.  In  confinement  the 
hens  do  not  nest  readily,  laying  in  the  yards  like  cer- 
tain varieties  of  water-fowl.  Neither  are  they  good 
mothers,  yet  in  the  wild  state  no  better  mothers  exist. 
The  eggs  should  be  gathered  often  and  cared  for  like 
any  other  egg.  More  eggs  are  produced  in  confinement, 
since  the  sitting  and  brooding  periods  are  not  factors. 
Fertility  in  pheasant  eggs  runs  high  where  good  care 
is  given.  During  the  laying  season  one  must  exclude 
strangers  from  the  yards  if  the  best  success  is  to  be 
gained,  since  their  timid  natures  are  easily  disturbed. 

Incubation — The  incubation  of  pheasant  eggs  is  large- 
ly done  by  chicken  hens  or  Bantam  hens.  The  heavily 
feathered  Bantam  hens  seem  to  give  better  results  be- 
cause they  are  not  too  heavy  and  their  temperature  is 
more  nearly  like  the  pheasant  mother,  wdio  \\\\\  not  sit 
in  captivity.  Artificial  incubation  can  be  used,  but  like 
poults,  the  first  few  weeks  of  the  life  of  a  pheasant  are 


Pheasant  Culture  393 

very  important.  Like  poults,  they  are  hardy  when  be- 
}ond  a  certain  age.  Very  few  attempt  incubation  in  any 
other  way  than  by  hens.  Apply  the  same  principles  to 
setting  pheasant  eggs  as  in  hen's  eggs,  except  the  can- 
dling is  often  omitted.  The  same  care  is  given  the  hens. 
Pheasant  eggs  will  begin  to  hatch  about  the  twent> 
third  day,  but  do  not  allow  the  hen  to  leave  the  nest  with 
the  wee  birds  for  a  day  after  the  hatch  is  well  cleaned 
up.  The  same  care  against  lice  should  be  given  to  the 
hen  and  little  pheasants  as  in  the  case  of  other  poultry. 
Each  brood  should  be  limited  to  what  a  hen  can  easily 
cover. 

Brooding — Any  good  brood  coop  for  hens  will  do  for 
pheasants.  They  need  sun  (without  too  much  heat)  and 
air,  yet  must  be  dry  and  clean  in  every  way.  Confine  the 
brood  quite  closely  to  the  coop  until  accustomed  to 
the  call  of  the  hen.  In  a  few  days  the  wee  birds  may 
be  allowed  a  small  run  in  front  of  the  coop  and  finally 
the  hen  may  be  allowed  the  run  of  a  small  yard.  Each 
night,  for  a  few  days  after  each  change,  the  operator 
must  see  to  it  that  the  small  pheasants  are  under  the  hen, 
and  if  not,  gently  place  them  there.  Do  not  forget  that 
the  wild  instinct  develops  rapidly  in  the  little  birds, 
therefore  be  quiet  in  movements  and  avoid  any  unneces- 
sary change  in  clothing  or  surroundings.  Changes  should 
be  made  in  the  evening  when  possible.  As  the  young- 
sters grow,  their  wings  may  need  clipping  to  hold  them 
in  the  yards,  and  in  doing  this,  use  care  not  to  cut  the 
portion  of  the  wing  that  protects  the  lungs.  The  flight 
feathers  only  need  clipping. 

About  the  end  of  the  first  month  the  plumage  will 
begin  to  change.  The  females  will  change  but  little, 
while  the  males  will  take  on  the  harmonious  gorgeous- 
ness  which  makes  them  so  attractive.     At  anv  time  one 


394        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

finds  the  little  birds  refusing  to  go  under  the  mother 
hen,  it  is  time  to  remove  her,  as  they  are  stubborn  in 
this  matter.  In  handling  the  young,  or  even  the  older 
pheasants,  do  not  take  them  by  the  extremities,  but  hold 
them  by  the  body.  To  catch  them,  many  recommend 
a  net  with  a  five-foot  handle. 

Foods  and  Feeding — Pure  and  fresh  water  is  abso- 
lutely essential.  Do  not  let  either  the  water  or  con- 
tainers become  tainted  or  impure.  After  a  day  give 
green  food  consisting  of  chopped  cabbage,  lettuce,  man- 
gels, clover  or  other  tender  greens.  Keep  a  little  char- 
coal and  fine  grit  where  the  hen  can  get  it  and  so 
the  pheasants  may  go  to  it  at  pleasure.  Keep  a  little 
chick  food  before  them  which  consists  of  millet,  corn 
and  wheat  in  equal  parts.  These  will  form  the  constant 
side  dishes  for  the  brood.  Now  comes  the  real  meal 
which  is  served  about  five  times  a  day  during  the  first 
week.  It  should  consist  of  fresh  hard-boiled  eggs  mixed 
with  equal  parts  of  oatmeal  or  a  lesser  quantity  of  corn- 
meal,  or  shorts  may  be  used.  Do  not  give  it  as  a  wet 
mash  but  feed  dry.  This  may  be  varied  once  a  day 
with  fine  fresh  meat  cuttings  dusted  with  flour  or  shorts. 
The  meat  must  be  lean  and  well  ground.  Dry  boiled  rice 
or  other  grain  is  good  when  broken  up. 

Another  commonly  fed  diet  is  one  of  worms,  which  takes 
the  place  of  the  meat  and  tgg  entirely.  This  worm 
diet  is  the  common  maggot.  Fresh  bone  and  meat  trim- 
mings are  placed  in  a  pan  over  an  inch  of  fine  dirt. 
Leave  exposed  to  flies  during  warm  weather  and  in 
three  days  the  bones  should  be  removed  and  some  thin 
slices  of  fresh  meat  or  liver  laid  upon  the  dirt  and  the 
bone  replaced.  Replace  the  liver  each  day  with  fresh. 
One  will  soon  determine  how  much  to  use.  After  about 
a  week  the  larvae  will  be  developed  and  ready  to  feed. 


Pheasant  Culture 


395 


396        Science  and  Art  or  Poultry  Culture 

The  number  of  birds  and  the  weather  will  determine 
the  operations  in  worm  culture.  Begin  in  time  to  have 
larvae  on  hand  at  hatching  time.  The  birds  cannot 
overeat  on  larvae.  Don't  try  to  produce  too  many  larvae 
in  one  pan  and  thus  overheat  it.  About  the  third  week 
reduce  the  worm  diet  gradually  until  the  full  grain  diet 
is  given  the  fifth  week. 

After  the  first  week  feed  only  three  times  a  day. 
Where  a  w^orm  diet  is  not  given  fresh  meat  should  be 
fed  sparingly  nearly  every  day  until  a  month  old,  when  ev- 
ery other  day  will  suffice  until  grown.  Some  meat  during 
breeding  seasons  is  almost  essential.  Too  heavy  a  meat 
ration  may  produce  leg  w^eakness  as  in  other  poultry. 
Older  birds  may  be  given  a  grain  diet  with  plenty  of 
green  food.  In  short,  the  same  care  is  needed  as  in 
other  fowls.  They  are  very  hardy  after  they  are  three 
months  old. 

General  Care — It  is  no  harder  to  raise  pheasants  than 
many  other  kinds  of  fowls  if  a  few  precautions  arc  ob- 
served. They  are  yet  almost  in  their  wild  state.  While 
all  is  regular  and  only  their  usual  keeper  is  about,  they 
become  quite  tame,  following  him  about  the  yards,  hunt- 
ing worms  at  his  spade,  even  resting  upon  the  arm  or 
hand  if  not  molested.  The  moment  a  strange  sound  is 
heard  or  a  strange  person  appears,  a  warning  cry  is 
heard  and  a  reign  of  terror  exists  in  every  pen.  If  it 
be  a  sudden  alarm,  the  birds  are  apt  to  injure  them- 
selves by  flying  against  the  sides  of  the  pen  or  the  build- 
ings. Strange  costumes,  or  even  a  new  dress  worn  by 
the  keeper  will  cause  much  fright  to  the  more  wild 
among  them.  While  in  captivity  they  do  not  use  their 
wings  much,  do  not  nest,  do  not  sit  or  brood  their  young. 
They  can  stand  much  cold  w^hen  able  to  obtain  food. 
Their  care  is  a  pleasure.     When  wild,  they  seem  to  be 


Pheasant  Culture  397 

able  to  know  when  danger  is  near,  yet  many  of  the  beau- 
tiful China  cocks  may  be  counted  from  the  train  win- 
dow in  the  Willamette  Valley  during  the  closed  season. 
While  passing  along  the  wagon  road  the  crow  of  the 
cock  is  heard  frequently. 

Shipping  Stock  and  Eggs — The  shipping  of  the  pheas- 
ants or  eggs  is  the  same  as  with  any  other  fowl,  using 
the  same  care  in  crating  and  shipping  both  stock  and 
eggs  as  given  in  other  chapters  in  this  volume.  They 
have  been  shipped  from  China,  from  England  and 
across  the  United  States  with  a  low  loss.  The  care  en 
route  always  is  provided  for  as  in  other  poultry  ship- 
ments. Give  them  plenty  of  room  and  ventilation  with- 
out draughts.  Provide  a  drinking  cup  within  the  ship- 
ping coop.  Notify  the  consignee  to  be  upon  the  watch 
for  the  consignment.  In  conclusion,  let  each  section  of 
the  country  where  China  or  English  pheasants  are  not 
in  a  wild  state,  be  urged  to  import  a  few  pairs,  protect 
them  by  adequate  laws  and  await  the  results,  which  will 
be  both  surprising  and  gratifying. 


Chapter  XXX. 
ACCOUNTS   AND   RECORDS. 

Very  few  persons  who  are  carrying  forward  a  business 
will  deny  the  value  of  accounts  and  records,  even  though 
the  business  may  be  small  and  simple  of  detail.  The 
value  lies  in  being  able  to  use  system,  thereby  growing 
more  systematic,  in  the  restraint  imposed  upon  ones 
tendency  toward  liberality  in  expense,  in  the  enforced 
study  of  existing  conditions,  in  the  reducing  of  the  mis- 
takes which  lead  to  discord  and  litigation,  in  the  knowing 
why  profit  or  loss  has  been  possible  and  in  the  count- 
less other  ways  apparent  to  the  one  so  keeping  accounts 
and  records. 

Their  form  is  not  so  important  so  long  as  the  results 
are  attained,  unless  thereby  the  labor  is  simplified.  The 
countless  systems  devised  and  placed  before  the  public 
consist  mainly  of  cards  or  loose  leaves  or  sometimes  com- 
binations of  both.  Both  have  much  merit  when  properly 
handled.  The  cards  need  suitable  holders  or  filing  cases, 
which  are  not  expensive,  while  the  loose-leaf  method  re- 
quires a  holder  or  finder  which  may  be  bought  or  made. 

A  clean  and  handy  place  to  put  records  is  desirable.  It 
may  be  best  to  copy  certain  records  one  wishes  to  pre- 
serve where  it  is  found  handier  to  have  the  original  rec- 
ord or  account  at  some  convenient  place  upon  the  prem- 
ises. They  should  be  so  arranged  that  comparisons  may 
be  easily  made  and  studies  thereof  be  the  means  of  im- 
provement. 

And  the  systems  are  possible  of  wide  application. 
398 


Accounts  and  Records 


399 


400        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

The}-  may  be  arranged  to  show  any  and  every  phase  of 
the  business  in  which  one  is  engaged.  Any  of  the  forms 
shown  herein  may  be  used  under  this  system.  Each  per- 
son may  arrange  card  records  to  suit  his  needs  and  his 
preferences.  One  may  wish  to  file  them  alphabetically, 
while  another  may  prefer  filing  by  locality.  Still  others 
might  use  both  methods.  Upon  these  cards  may  be 
placed  a  wide  variety  of  information  and  under  "re- 
marks" miscellaneous  data  recorded.  An  example  of  the 
value  of  the  latter  may  be  given  by  referring  to  the  two 
incubation  record  forms  herein  shown.  Under  "Re- 
marks" one  might  easily  note  the  oil  purchases,  age  of 
eggs  set,  accidents  during  incubation,  methods  of  man- 
aging the  parent  stock,  the  various  qualities  of  the  par- 
ent stock,  to  which  brooders  the  hatch  was  transferred, 
and  other  items  which  in  the  future  would  be  highly 
prized. 

In  the  accounting  plan,  simple  forms  only  are  sug- 
gested. They  may  be  varied  or  enlarged  to  suit  local  con- 
ditions. As  many  different  sub-accounts  may  be  intro- 
duced as  the  individual  business  may  require.  The  an- 
nual statement  may  also  be  amplified  to  show  much  inter- 
esting detail. 

Every  business  man  in  any  line  should  always  carry  a 
memorandum  pad  and  a  pencil  to  jot  down  such  items  as 
he  may  desire,  to  recall  or  record  at  his  convenience, 
make  notes  of  odds  and  ends  to  be  caught  up,  of  a  re- 
pair here,  a  change  there,  an  engagement  made,  in  short 
make  the  pad  an  invaluable  aid.  A  diary  is  often  of 
much  interest.  A  cash  account  strictly  adhered  to  is  al- 
ways desirable. 


Accounts  and  Records 


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Breeding-Pen  Records. 


INDIVIDUAL. 


Pen  number    

Name  and  band  number  of  sire    . 
Name  and  band  number  of  dam 

Date    of    mating    

Date    of    hatcliing    

Method   of    marking    

Was    development    normal?    .  .  .  . 
Band  number  upon   maturity    .  .  . 

Name    upon    maturity    

Score  of  matured  fowl    


410 


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Chapter  XXXI. 

PRINCIPLES    OF   ADVERTISING. 

General. 

The  science  of  advertising,  and  it  is  a  science  in  the 
highest  sense  of  that  term,  is  the  zenith  of  every  poul- 
tryman's  success.  In  fact  many  a  poultry  keeper  raises 
exceptionally  fine  birds  but  seems  to  lack  the  ability  to 
get  in  touch  with  the  buying  public.  This  sounds  the 
keynote  to  a  definition  of  advertising  as  applied  to  the 
disposal  of  all  poultry  products.  Therefore  advertis- 
ing is  making  known  to  prospective  purchasers  or  sel- 
lers, the  fact  that  one  has  for  sale  or  wishes  to  buy  cer- 
tain poultry  produce.  The  advertisement  is  the  means 
whereby  this  notification  is  given.  Thus  far  and  no 
farther  can  advertising  go.  It  merely  brings  the  buyer 
or  vendee  and  the  seller  or  vendor  together.  It  then  has 
performed  its  mission  and  the  subsequent  success  or 
failure  is  within  the  vendor's  ability  to  make  the  sale 
or  fail  in  the  attempt. 

If  the  vendor,  or  would-be  seller,  or  the  vendee,  thinks 
that  his  duty  has  ceased  with  the  placing  of  the  copy 
or  other  means,  then  he  is  absolutely  doomed  to  fail- 
ure unless  fortune  is  kind.  While  the  copy  is  in  itself 
an  advancing  study  and  one  well  worth  spending  time 
and  money  upon,  yet  that  is  merely  the  notification  to 
the  buyer  or  seller  or  an  introduction.  The  real  test 
comes  with  the  handling  of  the  inquiry  or  of  the  buyer 
or  seller,  if  he  comes  in  person.  Back  of  all  that  is  the 
ability  to  produce  the  quality  and  quantity  as  advertised 
411 


412        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


Courtesy  of  Eugene  Cowles. 


Principles  of  Advertising  413 

or  desired  and  the  integrity  to  consummate  a  bargain 
which  will  make  the  buyer  or  seller  a  constant  friend 
and  customer.  So  many  fanciers  and  market-poultry- 
men  look  no  farther  than  to  the  customer  at  hand,  not 
seeming  to  realize  that  every  satisfied  customer  is  the 
means  of  still  others  without  one  cent  of  expense  be- 
yond right  treatment  and  courteous  manners. 

Every  means  of  advertising  is  some  expense,  either  in 
money  or  time.  Therefore  it  must  be  profitable  or  loss 
results.  To  be  profitable  it  must  be  of  the  right  kind, 
it  must  be  constant  and  well  timed  and  its  results  must 
be  properly  cared  for  when  obtained. 

Each  separate  field  of  the  poultry  industry  has  its 
own  peculiar  season  when  buyers  are  most  active,  and 
in  view  of  that  the  live  advertiser  creates  the  greatest 
stir  at  that  particular  season,  yet  never  ceases  entirely 
unless  his  capacity  has  been  reached  or  his  output  en- 
tirely taken.  The  vendor  of  eggs  for  setting  purposes 
relies  mainly  upon  February,  March  and  April ;  of  eggs 
for  culinary  purposes,  all  seasons  except  the  spring, 
when  prices  are  undesirable ;  of  stock  for  breeding  pur- 
poses, from  fall  until  early  spring  holds  the  preference; 
of  turkeys  for  market,  the  late  fall  and  holiday  season ; 
of  broilers,  the  late  spring  brings  the  main  demana , 
of  roasters  and  capons  an  entirely  different  season. 
Thus  one  could  run  through  every  branch  of  the  vast 
field  of  poultry  produce  were  it  not  useless  for  the  fact 
that  markets  dififer  somewhat  in  diflerent  climates  and 
each  producer  should  understand  the  demands  of  his 
own  market. 

In  order  that  some  assistance  may  be  given  the  thou- 
sands that  have  not  had  the  opportunity  to  study  this 
science,  a  few  practical  suggestions  will  be  given  under 
the  subheads  of  the  mediums  through  which  to  reach 


414        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

the  public,  the  kind  of  matter  to  place  before  them,  the 
care  of  inquiries  and  the  value  of  such  mediums  as  are 
chosen. 

AIediums. 

In  choosing  a  medium  tlirough  which  to  reach  the 
bu\er  in  case  one  has  something  for  sale,  or  the  seller 
or  vendor,  in  case  one  is  seeking  a  place  from  which  to 
buy,  the  chief  thought  should  be  how  to  reach  that  end 
with  the  least  possible  investment.  In  speaking  of  in- 
vestment or  expense,  it  is  not  the  object  to  confine  our 
amount  expended  to  the  original  sum  of  money  spent, 
but  to  the  sum  total  expended  to  accomplish  a  given 
result.  What  might  seem  a  lavish  expense  if  placed  by 
one  method  and  in  one  medium,  often  would  bring 
adequate  returns  as  against  very  meagre  returns  if 
spread  over  many  mediums  and  by  several  methods. 
On  the  other  hand  the  reverse  might  be  true  of  a  dif- 
ferent product. 

We  are  now  able  to  see  that  the  product,  the  location 
and  the  available  mediums  are  the  three  chief  factors 
in  becoming  introduced  to  those  with  wdioni  business 
may  be  transacted. 

The  product  is  the  first  consideration.  Of  what  does 
it  consist?  When  fully  understanding  that  fact,  then  oc- 
curs the  query,  who  would  desire  or  be  possible  pur- 
chasers of  this  class  of  produce  ?  The  class  is  here  spoken 
of  purposely,  since  various  classes,  and  grades  of  those 
classes,  of  poultry  produce  would  be  desired  by  entirely 
dififerent  buyers.  Again,  if  the  business  is  to  be  built 
upon  hqnor  the  class  must  be  conformed  to  and  the 
grade  must  be  understood  and  be  strictly  adhered  to 
or  subsequent  failure  will  be  justified.  This  applies  to 
every  part  of  the  business,  whether  one  has  poultry, 
commercial  products,  or  in  any  other  field  of  activity. 


Principles  of  Advertising 


415 


CORNISH  INDIAN. 
Courtesy  of  T.  D.  Moore. 


416        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

The  location  is  also  a  chief  factor  in  choosing  a  me- 
dium for  reaching  the  pubhc.  A  good  medium  might 
exist  which  would  place  one  in  touch  with  a  right 
market,  yet  because  of  the  distance  from  such  market 
and  the  poor  facilities  for  getting  produce  to  that  market 
in  proper  condition,  would  be  sufficient  reasons  for  cau- 
tion. Upon  the  other  hand,  rapid  transportation  and 
better  methods  are  doing  wonders  for  the  poultry  pro- 
duce business  and  distance  is  becoming  less  and  less 
a  factor  in  location.  The  main  thought  in  location  is 
to  know  what  each  available  market  demands  and 
choose  only  the  best  market  or  territory  for  the  out- 
put of  the  branch  of  the  business  being  advertised.  The 
field  in  almost  any  direction  from  any  location  is 
nearly  limitless. 

The  available  mediums  is  the  third  great  factor  in 
careful  advertising.  They  are  legion  in  number,  and 
one's  ability  may  reach  any  height  in  choosing  or  cre- 
ating ways  or  means  of  advertising.  Salaries  of  goodly 
proportions  are  being  earned  by  experts  along  these  lines. 
The  creation  of  methods  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this 
work,  but  the  aim  will  be  to  suggest  some  of  those 
ideas  which  are  proving  practical  and  in  extensive  use. 

Personal  solicitation  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  me- 
diums of  advertising  wherever  and  whenever  it  is  prac- 
tical. Personal  contact  gives  both  parties  the  best  op- 
portunity for  becoming  acquainted  and  fully  under- 
standing the  need  upon  the  one  hand  and  the  property 
for  sale  upon  the  other.  No  other  way  is  open  to  such  a 
searching  of  character  or  such  a  chance  to  cement  a 
business  friendship.  The  principle  is  the  same  whether 
one  is  buying  produce  or  stock  or  selling  the  same, 
whether  one  is  at  home  or  abroad.  When  of  most  ben- 
efit to  the  buyer,  he  must  go  to  the  places  where  the 


Principles  of  Advertising  417 

sellers  congregate  or  to  their  homes,  while  the  seller 
must  go  where  the  buyers  are  apt  to  congregate  or 
go  to  their  homes.  The  product  would  determine  a 
choice  to  some  extent.  Vendors  and  vendees  of  eggs 
and  stock  for  breeding  purposes  find  poultry  exhibi- 
tions and  agricultural  fairs  a  profitable  meeting  ground. 
As  they  gather  around  their  own  or  the  exhibits  of 
others  they  become  acquainted  and  have  large  oppor- 
tunity for  the  study  of  their  mutual  needs.  This  is  also 
just  as  true  of  their  meeting  in  the  home  or  at  the  place 
of  business. 

Publications  which  accept  advertising  matter  and  are 
of  such  character  as  to  be  taken  by  the  class  one  wishes 
to  reach,  make  excellent  mediums.  One  advertising 
high-bred  cattle  would  hardly  use  a  hardware  journal 
as  a  medium  because  hardware  men  as  a  class  care 
nothing  for  cattle.  Upon  the  same  principle,  one  sell- 
ing fancy  fowls  and  eggs  for  hatching  should  adver- 
tise in  a  poultry  publication  of  some  kind,  because  it 
reaches  those  interested  in  poultry.  To  a  certain  ex- 
tent farm  journals  may  be  valuable.  Besides  the  reg- 
ular poultry  journals  there  are  poultry  books  and  cer- 
tain catalogues  in  which  one  may  buy  space  and  which 
are  quite  permanent  in  their  nature,  which  fact  adds 
value  to  the  space  bought.  In  the  journals  one  has  two 
factors  to  consider — the  circulation  and  the  territory 
one  wishes  to  reach.  A  guaranteed  circulation  means 
a  certain  number  of  people  reached  each  month  or  week 
as  the  case  may  be.  In  contracting  for  advertising, 
some  claim  it  would  be  a  waste  of  money  to  pay  one 
journal  the  same  rates  which  will  buy  the  same  space 
in  one  with  four  times  the  circulation.  Others  claim 
the  local  journal,  even  with  the  smaller  circulation,  will 
prove  the  better  since  it  reaches  more  prospects  for  that 


418        Science  ane  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


Principles  of  Advertising  419 

territoty  which  is  one's  natural  district.  Each  must  set- 
tle this  point  by  considering  what  the  conditions  will 
warrant.  Again,  if  one  is  selling  eggs  and  poultry  in 
a  commercial  sense  a  poultry  journal  would  be  almost 
useless.  It  is  the  city  home  one  wishes  to  reach  in  this 
case,  and  therefore  the  city  daily  or  other  medium  that 
reaches  most  of  these  homes  is  the  only  one  of  value. 
So  it  must  be  clearly  borne  in  mind  that  judgment  is 
the  important  element  in  choosing  a  medium  of  this 
kind.  Steady,  not  spasmodic,  advertising  is  what  counts, 
yet  one  can  be  unwise  in  the  amount  of  space  used  out 
of  season. 

Position  in  a  publication  is  often  important,  although 
more  depends  upon  the  form  and  substance  of  the  ad- 
vertisement than  on  position. 

Stationery  is  often  little  considered  in  the  advertis- 
ing sense,  yet  is  by  far  the  most  potent  of  all  the  or- 
dinary influences  that  go  to  make  up  the  impression 
a  breeder  or  dealer  gives  to  the  public.  Letters  are  si- 
lent yet  expressive  salesmen.  They  give  a  wonderful 
clue  to  the  general  make-up  and  habits  of  the  sender. 
We  unconsciously  give  these  matters  more  consider- 
ation than  we  are  willing  to  admit,  whether  it  is  justi- 
fiable or  not.  The  writing  itself  need  not  be  criticised 
except  as  to  its  thought,  since  a  poor  writer  may  result 
from  lack  of  training  or  other  cause.  It  is  the  general 
tone  and  appearance  of  the  letter  that  counts.  Always 
choose  a  neat  and  reliable  printer  and  one  whose  fa- 
cilities will  allow  of  the  grade  of  work  desired.  A  neat 
and  attractive  letterhead  is  a  valuable  aid  to  any  busi- 
ness. It  should  show  clearly  the  character  of  the  busi- 
ness, but  withal  have  a  quiet  dignity. 

Catalogues  of  one's  products,  nicely  illustrated,  to 
send  out  to  prospective  customers  and  in  answer  to  in- 


420        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

quiries  are  always  an  excellent  means  of  advertising. 
Unless  care  and  good  judgment  are  exercised  one  may 
waste  considerable  in  catalogue  expense.  Some  charge 
a  nominal  sum  for  catalogues  to  stop  the  demand  from 
those  not  really  interested.  Others  claim  it  a  poor 
practice. 

Exhibitions  and  agricultural  fairs  are  excellent  places 
to  exhibit  a  product  in  the  lines  of  stock  for  breeding 
purposes  or  for  the  purpose  of  inducing  a  purchase  of 
eggs  for  incubation.  A  neat  card  should  always  be 
upon  the  coop  and  others  placed  where  they  may  be  se- 
cured by  prospects  to  which  they  may  refer  in  the  fu- 
ture when  wishing  to  place  an  order.  The  commercial 
side  of  the  poultry  business  is  better  shown  in  such 
places  and  upon  such  occasions  as  will  be  seen  by  the 
city  consumers  of  these  products ;  neat  and  tasty  ex- 
hibits at  church  and  society  bazaars,  at  special  associ- 
ation meets,  in  windows  of  fashionable  retail  stores  or 
other  places  where  the  consuming  public  will  see  the 
exhibit  and  be  led  to  desire  such  a  grade  of  produce. 
The  advertising  value  of  a  premium  won  at  any  com- 
petitive show  should  not  be  overlooked,  nor  from  the 
purchaser's  standpoint  should  it  be  forgotten  that  such 
ribbons  are  often  won  because  of  no  competition.  The 
thousands  of  visitors  to  such  places  usually  note  these 
facts,  yet  when  reading  the  subsequent  advertisements 
such  fact  does  not  appear. 

Business  cards  nicely  worded  and  distributed  among 
various  interested  persons  are  always  a  good  method  of 
advertising.  Keep  a  supply  near  an  exhibit,  hand  them 
to  interested  visitors,  enclose  them  in  business  letters, 
place  them  discreetly  among  friends  or  acquaintances, 
send  them  to  breeders  or  producers  or  consumers  of 
the  line  of  produce  for  sale,  whose  names  are  obtainable 


Principles  of  Advertising  421 

from  many  sources  and  tack  them  up  in  conspicuous  places 
frequented  by  prospective  customers.  Always  carry  a 
few  about  the  person  to  use  at  such  opportune  times 
as  often  occur. 

Placards  upon  all  packages  of  any  description  shipped 
to  any  market  or  to  any  destination  are  always  effective 
means  of  spreading  a  reputation  either  for  better  or 
for  worse.  If  the  package  contains  excellent  goods  and  is 
attractive  in  appearance  the  result  will  be  for  the  bet- 
ter. Many  use  business  cards  for  placarding  all  ship- 
ments. Where  the  package  is  to  be  returned  for  further 
service  a  stenciled  notice  should  be  used.  The  neatly 
painted  and  stenciled  package  attracts  notice  anywhere. 

Catchy  advertising  schemes  are  always  on  the  market 
and  each  one  must  judge  for  himself  of  their  value. 
Any  scheme  which  places  before  the  prospect  an  ad- 
vertisement in  such  a  form  as  to  make  it  permanent  is 
what  is  often  desired.  This  idea  is  pressed  by  vendors 
of  calendars  and  other  novelty  advertising. 

The  greatest  advertising  medium  that  could  possibly 
exist  is  a  satisfied  customer.  Each  customer  tells  his 
friends  and  neighbors  of  his  purchase  and  at  the  same 
time  shows  or  expresses  his  pleasure  or  displeasure. 
This  friend  has  other  friends  and  thus  an  almost  end- 
less chain  of  approval  or  disapproval  is  formed  from 
each  transaction.  Rascals  in  the  poultry  business  in  ev- 
ery branch  have  justly  found  this  out  to  their  sorrow. 
Use  strictly  honest  methods  in  advertising  and  success 
is  inevitable  if  other  management  is  even  of  common 
ability.  The  right  kind  of  goods  properly  placed  be- 
fore a  buying  public  will  bring  good  returns. 

A  splendid  medium  is  an  attractive  poultry  plant  or 
farm.  Let  each  department  be  kept  up  in  a  businesslike 
manner,   where   thrift   and   good   management   are   vis- 


422        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

ible  upon  every  hand.  Special  features  such  as  egg 
records,  trap  nests,  modes  of  handling  produce,  are  al- 
ways of  interest  to  visitors. 

Copy. 

The  copy  or  matter  placed  in  an  advertisement  is 
very  important.  The  secret,  in  a  few  words,  is  to  catch 
the  attention  and  hold  it  until  such  time  as  the  reader  is 
led  to  the  gist  of  what  is  intended  for  him  to  read.  The 
methods  of  doing  this  are  varied.  This  is  true  because 
there  are  many  different  personalities  or  characters 
aiiiong  the  prospective  customers  or  people  to  be  reached. 
What  would  challenge  the  attention  of  one  person  would 
not  be  seen  by  another.  What  one  would  see  if  placed 
in  a  certain  journal  or  location  would  never  be  seen 
by  another  whose  habits  lead  him  in  entirely  different 
channels.  What  is  being  aimed  at  by  thousands  of 
professional  advertising  writers  is  to  compel  the  atten- 
tion of  the  greatest  number  of  people  by  means  of  the 
fewest  mediums  and  at  the  least  expense. 

Whatever  medium  is  chosen,  now  arises  the  question 
of  the  forming  of  the  copy.  A  few  principles  will  be 
suggested  which  are  general  in  nature  and  the  applica- 
tion of  which  should  be  practical.  Upon  all  copy,  where 
possible,  give  a  good  local  bank  reference. 

Where  copy  is  to  be  used  in  journals,  catalogues,  or 
other  printed  publications,  determine  just  how  much 
space  is  to  be  used  each  month  and  then  fit  the  copy 
to  the  space.  IMany  send  in  an  advertisement  which 
seems  neat  and  attractive  and  upon  receipt  of  the  printed 
form  are  disgusted  with  its  appearance.  No  one  is  to 
be  blamed  but  the  composer,  since  the  printer  was  in- 
structed to  place  a  given  amount  of  matter  in  a  given 
space.     Do  not  overcrowd  since  many  will  not  stop  to 


Principles  of  Advertising  423 

read  it  where  they  would  glance  over  it  if  it  were  not 
so  crowded. 

J\Iake  some  one  part  of  each  copy  a  strong  line  or  attrac- 
tion. Some  compel  attention  by  a  cut  or  picture,  some 
by  strong  headlines  and  some  in  other  ways.  No  mat- 
ter what  the  method  employed  the  strong  or  attractive 
feature  should  bring  out  the  central  thought  or  thing 
for  sale.  One  hunting  for  or  interested  in  a  particular 
product  is  not  liable  to  look  beyond  headlines  or  illus- 
trations for  the  object  of  his  search. 

Throw  variety  into  advertising.  An  advertisement 
repeated  month  after  month  receives  little  attention. 
Change  the  entire  copy  quite  often.  Many  follow  cer- 
tain advertisers  for  the  pleasure  derived  in  noting  their 
live  methods.     This  invariably  leads  to  results. 

^lake  no  claims  that  are  not  absolutely  warranted 
and  which  can  be  backed  by  actual  test  or  can  be  shown 
to  a  customer  to  be  as  claimed.  This  kind  of  dishonesty 
will  always  prove  a  boomerang. 

Aim  to  be  original  and  pointed  in  all  copy.  Remember 
that  you  are  trying  to  catch  the  interest  and  then  to 
hold  it  until  the  matter  is  laid  before  the  mind  and  a 
favorable  impression  made.  Do  not  lean  too  much  to 
sensationalism,  which  may  attract  attention  and  hold  it, 
yet  it  rarely  inspires  confidence.  Quiet  and  dignified 
yet  original  and  pointed  copy  will  more  often  succeed.' 
Catchiness  is  not  necessarily  sensational. 

Do  not  fail  to  be  seasonable  in  the  copy.  Day-old 
chicks  or  eggs  for  incubating  would  avail  but  little  if  ad- 
vertised in  the  fall  instead  of  during  the  natural  or 
spring  season.  Use  more  space  in  season  and  lesssen  it 
out  of  season.  If  one  sized  space  is  used  let  the  central 
idea  keep  pace  with  the  output  of  each  season.  Let 
letterheads  be  also  properly  timed  and  in  season  or  else 


424        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

general   in   their   nature.      Placards   and   business   cards 
are  subject  to  the  same  principle. 

Caring  for  Inquiries. 

Advertising  is  merely  being  introduced  to  a  possible 
customer,  yet  it  seems  in  place  at  this  time  to  treat  of 
the  subject  of  caring  for  inquiries  so  that  the  value  of 
advertising  may  be  taken  advantage  of  and  its  bene- 
fits secured.  If  the  inquiries  are  personal,  honesty  and 
frankness  will  win  an  order  if  other  requisites  are  pres- 
ent. It  is  the  written  inquiry  of  which  one  needs  to  be 
most  careful. 

Promptness  in  answering  inspires  confidence  in  one's 
business  methods  as  well  as  leaves  no  necessity  for  the 
inquirer  to  look  elsewhere.  Keep  a  copy  of  all  cor- 
respondence, for  both  convenience  and  to  insure  no  sub- 
sequent loss  through  misunderstanding.  Look  over  each 
inquiry  to  be  certain  that  every  point  is  fully  covered 
by  the  answer,  thus  avoiding  delay  and  a  wrong  im- 
pression of  carelessness  in  the  one  who  answers  the  in- 
quiry. In  every  statement  hew  to  the  strict  truth  and 
live  up  to  every  promise  made.'  The  copy  kept  is  al- 
ways handy  for  a  reminder.  Use  nothing  but  the 
best  grade  of  stationery  and  a  neat  little  letterhead 
thereon.  In  language  and  style  be  courteous,  dig- 
nified and  straightforward.  No  one  likes  to  waste  time 
on  correspondence,  therefore,  be  concise.  Remember 
that  in  caring  for  inquiries  comes  the  test  of  salesman- 
ship. Use  a  follow-up  system  and  if  these  letters  do 
not  bring  results  allow  the  prospect  to  rest  for  a  period. 
Ascertaining  \^alue  of  Advertising. 

One  of  the  greatest  perplexities  of  the  advertiser  is 
to  find  out  what  returns  are  being  received  from  the 
various  advertisements  which  are  being  employed.  Even 
though  only  one  journal  carries  space,  yet  business  cards 


Principles  of  Advertising  425 


■1 

m^:?."-           '.-j-Tf  :■"•■  -^''•''-'oiSB^Hl^B^BBB^^BBi 

^              ^1^1 

A       ^iJH 

^^^9 

^Bu^^^nS^nMr^^!^^^! 

^9H^9MM^^^^"Wi^iLlllflill^^H 

i^^^3 

^^^^^SSbSJB^^^^^I 

YOUNG  BARRED  PLYMOUTH  ROCK  PULLET. 
Courtesy  of  Peerless  Poultry  Plant  (Inc.). 


426        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

and  other  advertising  are  also  in  existence.  Therefore 
each  advertiser  should  have  some  method  by  which  the 
advertising  that  pays  should  be  ascertained  and  all  other 
discarded.  To  do  this  successfully  each  piece  of  mail 
that  is  received  should  bear  upon  it  the  evidences  of 
the  source  of  the  inquiry.  This  is  accomplished  by  a 
variation  in  the  address  given  to  each  separate  medium 
of  advertising.  Some  accomplish  this  by  giving  a  dif- 
ferent street  number  to  each,  some  by  using  ficticious 
postoffice  box  numbers  above  those  in  existence  (with 
the  consent  of  the  local  postmaster),  some  by  different 
room  numbers  and  many  by  department  numbers  or  let- 
ters, which  last  named  method  is  the  preferable.  These 
methods  are  essential  because  very  few  inquirers  will 
state  from  what  journal  or  other  source  they  obtained 
the  address.  They  are  more  careful  to  observe 
the  full  address.  In  this  way  let  the  advertising  by 
card  or  placard  bear  as  a  part  of  the  address,  depart- 
ment A,  that  in  a  given  journal,  department  B,  and  in 
another  publication,  department  C,  and  so  on  indefinitely. 
While  all  the  letters  may  not  be  thus  designated,  enough 
will  be  properly  addressed  to  clearly  indicate  what  mode 
of  advertising  pays  best  for  a  given  investment. 
Record  of  Advertising  and  Its  Results. 

To  know  to  whom  one  has  written,  from  whom  one 
has  inquiries,  what  medium  is  bringing  the  best  results, 
and  other  valuable  data,  is  easily  acquired  by  means 
of  a  card  system. 

Each  medium  through  which  one  is  seeking  business  may 
have  its  own  card  upon  which  one  may  enter  daily  the 
inquiries  to  be  credited  to  it  and  its  expense.  Each  name 
thus  acquired  together  with  its  address  and  its  source 
may  appear  upon  a  card  in  another  set  arranged  al- 
phabetically, and  also  by  states  and  cities  if  one  desires. 


Principles  of  Advertising  427 

Upon  this  same  card  the  date  and  nature  of  each  trans- 
action with  this  addressee  should  be  entered.  From  this 
set  of  cards  one  may  determine  at  any  time  which  me- 
dium is  bringing  the  best  cash  sales  regardless  of  the 
number  of  inquiries.  Where  sales  have  been  made  they 
will  also  be  a  splendid  reference  in  case  other  inquiries 
come  from  the  same  locality.  Subsequent  transactions 
may  result  from  using  these  cards  for  a  mailing  list. 
A  follow-up  system  may  be  made  of  these  cards  by  tem- 
porarily removing  such  cards  as  are  under  correspond- 
ence and  placing  them  under  the  proper  date  in  the  au- 
tomatic monthly  tickler  or  desk  file.  When  they  have 
served  this  memorandum  purpose  replace  them  in  the 
regular  file. 


Chapter  XXXII. 
ORGANIZING    ASSOCIATIONS. 

Many  times  a  group  of  persons  are  desirous  of  unit- 
ing for  some  specific  purpose  and  because  of  inexper- 
ience and  a  certain  natural  timidity  they  fail  to  take  the 
necessary  steps  to  complete  the  desired  organization. 
Even  those  more  experienced  sometimes  wish  to  refer 
to  some  authority  to  refresh  the  memory.  It  is  to  as- 
sist either  of  these  two  classes  that  a  few  simple  sug- 
gestions are  given  on  the  organization  of  associations. 

The  objects  for  which  associations  are  formed  are 
without  number.  Nearly  all  the  business  of  the  civil- 
ized world  is  now  done  in  that  manner,  although  much 
of  it  is  under  various  forms  of  corporate  and  partnership 
existence.  To  these  organizations  we  do  not  refer, 
since  the  special  laws  covering  these  vary  widely  in 
different  States  and  countries.  The  associations  which 
desire  such  a  character  of  organization  should  employ 
an  attorney  or  other  competent  person  to  properly  pre- 
pare the  necessary  papers  and  see  that  all  the  legal  steps 
are  correctly  followed.  Associations  are  frequently 
formed  to  promote  the  culture  of  certain  varieties  or 
breeds  of  stock  or  poultry,  to  hold  exhibitions  or  ag- 
ricultural fairs,  to  obtain  better  prices  or  treatment  in 
handling  fancy  or  commercial  poultry,  to  buy  or  to 
collect,  ship  and  distribute  eggs  or  other  produce,  to 
educate  its  members  in  better  methods,  and  for  count- 
less other  objects. 

The  advantages  to  be  gained  in  thus  associating  to- 
428 


Organizing  AssocixMions 


429 


BUCKEYE. 
Courtesy  of  Eugene  Cowles. 


430        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

gether  may  not  always  be  apparent  at  first  thought. 
However,  as  one  studies  the  power  of  organization  the 
ernment  of  the  local  town,  the  county,  the  State  and  the 
United  States.  We  see  the  benefits  brought  back  from 
benefits  gradually  unfold  to  the  view.  We  see  the  gov- 
having  a  representative  of  the  local  organization  in  the 
higher  organizations.  In  local  associations  the  same  idea 
holds  true  when  affiliation  with  other  similar  organ- 
izations takes  place.  United  effort  arouses  a  widespread 
interest  which  not  only  enhances  the  self-interest  and 
influence  but  in  turn  spreads  knowledge  and  usefulness 
among  others.  The  public  at  large  is  benefited  by  what- 
ever is  of  benefit  to  the  few.  The  righting  of  wrongs, 
the  obtaining  of  just  recognition,  the  wielding  of  in- 
fluence and  the  enlargement  of  opportunity  are  all  better 
attained  by  the  well-directed  effort  of  an  association 
than  by  the  individual  effort  of  many.  Lectures,  insti- 
tutes, exhibitions  and  other  useful  ends  are  thus  more 
easily  accomplished,  bringing  people  to  the  community 
rather  than  requiring  them  to  go  elsewhere  for  these 
benefits. 

When  a  person  or  a  group  of  persons  have  detei 
mined  to  attempt  the  organization  of  an  association  for 
some  specific  purpose,  the  first  step  is  to  issue  a  call 
for  a  temporary  meeting  of  all  those  interested  in  the 
object  in  view.  This  call  should  clearly  state  the  pur- 
pose, the  place  and  the  time  of  the  meeting.  The  call 
may  be  by  special  letter,  by  newspaper  notice,  or  by  per- 
sonal solicitation.  Before  the  time  set  for  the  meeting 
those  instrumental  in  the  call  should  inform  themselves 
well  on  the  subject  at  hand.  If  the  local  association  is 
to  become  a  member  of  some  general  organization,  then 
full  data  should  be  at  hand  to  show  what  requirements 
the  hiHier  bodv  will  demand  of  the  lesser  one. 


Orgaxizixg  Associations  431 

When  the  temporary  meeting  has  been  called  to  order 
a  temporary  chairman  and  a  temporary  secretary  must 
be  chosen.  The  chairman  will  explain,  or  call  upon 
someone  to  explain,  the  object  of  the  call,  the  benefits 
to  be  derived,  the  expenses  to  be  met,  the  plans  where- 
by the  object  may  be  attained,  and  such  other  items  as 
are  necessary  to  place  everything  clearly  before  the  as- 
sembly. After  a  full  discussion,  some  one  will  move  to 
organize  the  association  as  planned,  which,  if  carried, 
will  place  matters  in  the  way  of  a  permanent  organization. 
The  decision  may  be  reached  by  voice,  by  hand  or  by 
written  slips. 

The  next  step  would  wisely  be  one  of  membership. 
While  the  enthusiasm  is  high  let  the  secretary  take  the 
names  of  all  those  present  who  will  become  members. 
They  may  pay  the  membership  fee  at  this  time  or  at  a 
later  date.  Only  those  becoming  members  are  rightly 
entitled  to  continue  in  the  shaping  of  the  business  af- 
fairs of  the  association. 

A  committee  should  now  be  appointed  or  elected 
to  recommend  a  constitution  and  by-laws.  A  consti- 
tution for  our  purpose  is  the  fundamental  or  basic  prin- 
ciples or  laws  governing  a  body  of  persons.  The  by- 
laws are  the  less  important  provisions  of  the  laws,  sub- 
sidiary to  the  constitution ;  or  in  short,  they  are  the  rules 
governing  the  details.  The  constitution  says  that  there 
shall  be  a  president,  while  the  by-laws  define  the  duties 
of  the  president.  Some  member  of  this  committe  usu- 
ally has  a  draft  of  the  proposed  constitution  and  by- 
laws. Sometimes  the  whole  assembly  take  up  this  mat- 
ter of  forming  a  constitution  and  by-laws.  In  the  former 
case  the  committee  usually  withdraws  for  a  time,  to  get 
ready  their  recommendations.  In  case  this  will  take 
longer  than  is  feasible,  the  committee  may  merely  sug- 


432        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


CORNISH  INDIAN, 
Courtesy   of   T.   D.   Moore. 


Orgaxizixg  Associations  433 

gest  the  number  and  names  of  the  officers,  the  name 
and  object  of  the  organization,  the  fee  to  be  charged 
and  other  main  items,  leaving  the  other  details  of  the  con- 
stitution and  by-laws  for  the  next  regular  meeting. 

The  election  of  permanent  officers  is  now  in  order. 
A  President,  Mce-Presidents,  Secretary,  Treasurer,  Di- 
rectors and  any  other  special  officers  such  as  Auditors. 
Superintendents  of  special  features.  Departmental  Man- 
agers, or  other  needed  officers  are  chosen.  The  need  of 
more  than  one  Mce-President  or  of  the  special  officers, 
will  depend  upon  the  object  for  which  the  association  is 
formed.  The  permanent  President  and  Secretary  usu- 
ally take  their  respective  places  at  once  upon  election. 
The  Board  of  Directors  ordinarily  includes  the  Presi- 
dent and  the  Secretary  and  sometimes  all  the  officers 
of  the  association.  Having  decided  upon  the  name  and 
object  of  the  organization,  the  membership  fee,  the  term 
and  compensation  of  officers  and  other  vital  points,  the 
organization  is  completed  except  as  to  the  final  adoption 
of  the  detailed  constitution  and  by-laws  in  case  they 
were  not  ready  for  full  adoption. 

The  meeting  will  usually  be  smoothly  conducted,  by 
each  person  being  courteous  to  all,  yet  the  adoption 
of  certain  rules  of  order  would  not  be  out  of  place.  The 
election  of  or  appointment  of  permanent  committees  to 
look  after  certain  interests  is  often  a  good  plan. 

A  simple  copy  of  a  constitution  and  by-laws  is  given 
as  a  guide  while  organizing  clubs  or  associations,  varying 
such  portions  as  do  not  conform  with  the  needs  at  hand. 
A  copy  of  the  constitution  and  by-laws  of  any  organiza- 
tion may  usually  be  secured  by  application  to  the  secre- 
tary of  that  organization. 


434        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

CONSTITUTIOX   AND   BY-LAWS   OF   THE 
CLINTON  POULTRY  ASSOCLATION. 

Constitution. 
Article  I.    Xatiic  and  Object. 

Section  L  This  organization  shall  be  known  as  the 
Clinton  Poultry  Association. 

Section  2.  The  object  of  this  association  shall  be  to 
promote  and  encourage  the  raising  of  better  poultry, 
hold  exhibitions  and  institutes  and  otherwise  dissem- 
inate knowledge  of  poultry  culture. 

Article    If.     Membership. 

Section  L  Subsequent  to  the  charter  membership  all 
applicants  for  membership  shall  be  recommended  by  one 
or  more  members  of  the  association  and  approved  by 
a  majority  vote  of  the  association,  or  of  the  committee 
to  whom  this  power  may  be  delegated.  They  shall  also 
be  required  to  deposit  one  dollar  each  which  must  ac- 
company the  applications. 

Section  2.  The  annual  dues  shall  be  one  dollar,  pay- 
able on  or  before  September  first  of  each  year. 

Section  3.  Members  becoming  more  than  six  months 
in  arrears  shall  lose  membership  in  this  association,  said 
members  having  been  given  thirty  days'  notice  of  such 
delinquency  by  the  secretarv. 

Section  4.  Any  member  found  guiltv  bv  the  directors 
of  willful  misrepresentation  or  dishonest  dealings  in  con- 
nection with  the  subject  matter  of  this  association  shall 
be  expelled. 

Article  HI.    Meetings. 

Section  1.  Regular  meetings  shall  be  held  once  each 
month  upon  the  first  Tuesday  evening  thereof  unless 
changed  by  the  board  of  directors. 

Section  2.    The  annual  meeting  shall  be  held  on  such 


Organizing  Associations  435 

date  and  at  such  place  as  the  board  of  directors  may  des- 
ignate. At  this  meeting  shall  occur  the  annual  election 
of  officers  of  the  association  and  such  other  business  as 
may  come  before  the  association.  Proxies  shall  be  al- 
lowed at  the  annual  meeting  but  not  more  than  four 
may  be  held  by  each  member  present. 

Article  n\    Officers. 

Section  1.  The  officers  of  the  association  shall  be  a 
President,  one  or  more  A'ice-Presidents,  a  Secretary, 
Treasurer,  Superintendent  of  Exhibitions,  and  a  Board 
of  ten  Directors,  of  which  all  other  officers  shall  be 
members. 

Section  2.  All  officers  and  directors  shall  hold  office 
for  one  year  or  until  their  successors  have  been  elected 
and  qualified. 

Section  3.  Officers  of  the  association  shall  be  elected 
by  ballot  by  a  majority  of  the  members  or  legal  prox- 
ies present  at  the  annual  meeting  each  year. 

Section  4.  Vacancies  occuring  during  the  year  shall 
be  filled  by  the  board  of  directors. 

Section  5.  Proxies  may  be  allowed  at  the  annual 
meeting  in  the  election  of  officers,  but  no  more  than 
two  proxies  shall  be  voted  by  any  one  member. 

Section  6.  All  new  officers  shall  assume  their  duties 
two  weeks  after  the  annual  meeting. 

Article  ['.     Ouoruui. 
Section  1.    A  quorum  shall  consist  of  eight  members 
of  the  as.sociation  present  at  the  regular  meetings  and 
one-tenth  of  all  members  present  in  person  or  by  proxy 
at  the  annual  meeting. 

Article  VI.     Ainoiduiciits. 
Section  1.    The  Constitution  and  P>y-Laws  of  this  as- 
sociation may  be  changed  or  amended  by  a  two-thi.-ds 


436        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

vote  of  the  members  present  at  any  meeting  of  this  as- 
sociation. 

By-Laws. 
Article  I.    Duties  of  Officers. 

Section  1.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  President  of  this 
association  to  preside  at  all  its  meetings ;  appoint  special 
committees ;  preside  over  all  the  deliberations  of  the 
board  of  directors;  and  in  other  ways  perform  all  the 
duties  of  a  presiding  officer. 

Section  2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Vice-Presidents, 
in  their  order,  to  act  in  the  absence  of  the  President 
and  to  perform  such  other  duties  as  may  be  prescribed 
by  the  board  of  directors. 

Section  3.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Secretary  to 
keep  the  minutes  of  each  meeting  of  the  association 
and  board  of  directors ;  to  conduct  the  correspondence 
of  the  association  and  keep  proper  records  thereof;  to 
distribute  notices  of  meetings;  to  have  charge  of  all 
books  and  papers  pertaining  to  his  office ;  to  collect  the 
membership  fees  and  dues  and  all  other  monies  of  the 
association,  turning  them  over  to  the  treasurer  at  the 
proper  time  and  place ;  to  notify  all  members  of 
their  election ;  to  keep  a  full  list  of  entries  at  all 
exhibitions,  together  with  all  awards  placed ;  and  to 
otherwise  care  for  such  duties  as  are  laid  down  by  the 
board  of  directors  for  him  to  perform. 

Section  4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Treasurer  to 
have  charge  of  all  the  funds  of  the  association;  to  pay 
all  bills  properly  approved  by  the  President ;  to  keep  ac- 
curate records  of  his  office ;  to  make  an  annual  report 
of  his  office  at  the  annual  meeting  each  year ;  to  hold  his 
records  open  for  inspection  at  all  times  to  members  of 


Orgaxizixg  Association?;  437 

the  association ;   and  to  otlierwise  perform   such   duties 
as  may  be  given  him  by  the  board  of  directors. 

Section  5.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Superintendent 
of  Exhibitions  to  superintend  all  exhibitions  held  by 
the  association  under  such  rules  and  regulations  as  shall 
be  laid  down  by  the  board  of  directors. 

Section  6.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  board  of  di- 
rectors to  have  general  charge  of  all  the  business  of  the 
association  and  be  responsible  therefor ;  to  define  and 
supervise  the  duties  of  the  officers ;  and  to  report  at  each 
annual  meeting,  the  condition  of  each  office  and  of  the 
association.  Four  members  shall  constitute  a  quorum. 
Article  II.     Compensation  of  OfUccrs. 

Section   1.    Xo  officer  shall  receive  compensation  for 
service  performed,   but  all   expense   in   connection   with 
each  office  shall  be  borne  by  the  association. 
Article  III.     Order  of  Business. 

1.  Roll  call. 

2.  Reading  minutes  of  preceding  meeting. 

3.  Reports  of  officers. 

4.  Reports  of  committees. 

5.  Unfinished  business. 

6.  Election  of  new  members. 

7.  New  business. 

8.  Election  of  officers  and  directors. 

9.  General  discussions. 
10.  Adjournment. 

Article  IV.     Rules  of  Order. 
Robert's  Rules  of  Order  shall  govern  this  organiza- 
tion  in   all   cases   where   not   inconsistent    with    the   by- 
laws of  this  association. 


Chapter  XXXIII. 

VICES,  ENEMIES,  PARASITES  AND  DISEASES 

OF  POULTRY  AND  THEIR  PROPER 

TREATMENT. 

Introduction. 

Fowls,  like  members  of  the  human  family,  are  sub- 
ject to  disease  and  in  many  of  the  common  ailments 
the  symptoms  are  similar  and  the  remedy  much  the 
same,  except  in  a  modified  form.  The  bird  catches 
cold,  chills,  has  fever,  difficulty  of  breathing,  indiges- 
tion, nerve  troubles,  and  responds  as  readily  to  mis- 
treatment, poorly  ventilated  quarters  or  improper 
feeding  as  does  a  person.  In  view  of  these  facts,  one 
can  often  get  at  the  real  symptoms  and  diagnose  the 
case  very  accurately  by  the  use  of  some  good,  practi- 
cal common  sense. 

Many  fanciers  ridicule  the  idea  of  doctoring  fowls, 
giving  a  sharp  axe  as  their  remedy  for  all  ills.  In  a 
great  many  cases,  especially  among  contagious  dis- 
eases and  where  birds  are  not  valuable  specimens, 
this  is  the  satisfactory  thing  to  do.  Many  times  too, 
the  time  expended  in  looking  after  and  caring  for  the 
fowl  is  more  valuable  than  the  cured  bird.  On  the 
other  hand,  unless  one  is  willing  to  take  this  time 
necessary  to  observe  and  study  symptoms,  it  is  better 
that  he  keep  out  of  the  poultry  business.  Most  fail- 
ures among  poultry  men  are  due  almost  entirely  to 
diseases,  while  success  in  poultry  raising  depends 
438 


\^iCES.  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases       439 

upon  the  ability  of  those  engag^ed  in  this  industry  to 
keep  their  birds  free  from  all  causes  of  disease. 

While  we  have  not  gone  into  details  such  as  would 
be  expected  in  a  treatise  devoted  exclusively  to  poul- 
try diseases,  yet  this  portion  of  the  work  aims  at  clear 
and  concise  causes  and  symptoms  and  practical  com- 
mon sense  methods  of  treatment. 

This  subject  will  not  be  divided  technically  but 
rather  according  to  the  commonly  accepted  division 
among  poultry  men,  attempting  at  all  times  to  present 
plain  truths  in  plain  language  divested  of  all  technical 
terms  so  that  all  may  understand. 

It  is  hard  to  diagnose  exactly  as  symptoms  are  mis- 
leading and  it  is  often  difificult  to  tell  where  one  dis- 
ease ends  and  another  begins.  One  should  strive  to 
catch  the  disease  in  its  early  stages,  as  it  is  much 
more  easily  handled.  At  the  commencement  of  dis- 
ease, local  medication  is  liable  to  give  better  results 
than  internal  administration  of  remedies.  Both  are 
needed,  however,  for  most  satisfactory  results. 

Prevention  Better  than  Treatment — This  is  a  well- 
worn  precaution  among  poultry  keepers,  but  one  we 
cannot  overlook  as  it  is  of  much  more  value  to  be 
familiar  with  the  prevention  of  disease  or  how  to 
check  its  spread  than  to  be  able  to  diagnose  and  pre- 
scribe. 

We  believe  in  the  prevention  of  disease,  for  it  takes 
time  and  money  to  doctor  sick  birds.  Sick  stock  is  a 
decided  hindrance  and  a  menace,  hence  a  knowledge 
of  the  nature  and  common  methods  of  preventing 
disease  among  fowls  is  essential  to  success  in  this  im- 
portant industry.  A  sound  constitution  is  the  only 
real  safeguard  against  disease.  A  bird  is  regarded  as 
being  in   go3d   health   when   it   appears   lively,   has   a 


440        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

clear  eye,  l)rii;iit  red  com1).  is  quick  and  active  in  its 
movements,  has  a  good  appetite  and  all  its  organs 
performing  their  respective  duties. 

Given  healthy  stock,  the  problem  of  how  to  keep 
them  so  is  usually  solved  by  observing  careful  meth- 
ods of  feeding  and  housing.  From  the  time  the  chick 
comes  into  the  world  till  the  day  of  its  death,  this 
question  of  how  to  feed  continually  presents  itself. 
It  is  taken  up  fully  under  the  chapter  of  "  Foods  and 
Feeding "  elsewhere  in  this  volume,  and  if  followed 
carefully  will  do  much  towards  the  rearing  of  strong, 
vigorous  stock.  Keep  clearly  in  mind  the  fact  that 
no  one  ration  will  supply  the  many  needs  of  a  bird. 
A  fowl  needs  a  variety  of  grains,  plenty  of  meat  and 
vegetables  and  a  good  supply  of  grit  for  masticating. 
To  overlook  these  plain  truths  in  feeding  is  to  lay  the 
groundwork  for  almost  any  of  the  troubles  common 
to  poultry. 

Neglect  and  carelessness  in  the  housing  of  fowls, 
using  poorly  ventilated,  dark,  filthy,  pest-ridden  quarters 
are  responsible  for  95  per  cent  of  all  the  poultry  ills. 
Close  confinement  in  a  poorly  ventilated  house  alone 
will  more  than  counteract  all  known  remedies. 

"  Cleanliness  next  to  Godliness  "  is  nowhere  more 
applicable  than  in  poultry  raising.  In  fact,  filth,  to- 
gether with  the  accompanying  parasites  and  disease 
germs,  is  inexcusable  and  at  the  bottom  of  coimtless 
failures.  Keep  all  poultry  c[uarters  clean  and  let  the 
sim  get  at  the  germs  and  stimulate  the  fowls.  Scien- 
tists are  unable  to  exactly  explain  what  there  is  in 
sunlight  to  produce  growth,  yet  we  know  it  to  be  es- 
sential for  healthy  growth  of  both  animal  and  ]ilant 
life. 

Lice  and  mites  cannot  be  termed  disease,  but  thev 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      441 

are  the  cause  of  disease  and  the  most  taxing  of  pests. 
Over  half  of  the  diseases  to  which  poultry  is  subject  to 
can  be  traced  to  this  cause.  There  is  no  excuse  for  their 
presence.  A  careful  study  of  the  subject  of  parasites 
will  enable  one  to  combat  successfully  with  these 
pests.     All  dead  fowls  should  be  buried  immediately, 


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single  comb  RHODE   ISLAND  RED. 
Courtesy    of   Lester    Tompkins. 

thus  preventing  others  from  becoming  contaminated 
by  eating  the  putrid  flesh  or  the  maggots  that  so  soon 
accumulate  in  such  cases. 

All  new  birds  or  birds  returning  from  the  show 
room  should  be  placed  in  quarantine  until  their  health 
condition  is  exactly  known.  A  small  building  apart 
from  the  main  plant  is  very  essential  for  this  purpose 
and  is  not  overlooked  by  the  careful  poultryman.  Do 
not  go  direct  from  the  sick  birds  to  the  well  ones  with- 


442        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

out  first  using  antiseptic  soap  on  the  hands  and  care- 
fully disinfecting  the  clothing.  It  pays  to  take  the 
time  necessary  to  shelter  the  fowls  prior  to  a  storm. 
This  is  especially  true  with  the  young  stock. 

Over- fat  stock  is  subject  to  many  diseases,  as  well 
as  liable  to  such  malformations  as  double-yolked  eggs, 
soft-shelled  eggs,  egg  within  an  egg  and  eggs  that 
are  undersized  and  off-shaped.  Use  care  in  selecting 
strong,  healthy  breeding  stock  and  then  breed  for 
health.  Preventive  measures  are  far  more  satisfactory 
than  medical  treatment,  and  if  due  attention  is  paid 
to  what  has  been  written  along  this  line  there  will 
be  little  cause  for  administering  medicines. 

Disinfectants  and  How  to  Use  Them — Every  poultry- 
man  realizes  that  to  get  the  best  results  from  a  flock 
of  chickens  it  must  be  kept  perfectly  clean.  Coops, 
houses,  runs  or  any  of  the  poultry-house  fixtures  har- 
boring vermin  or  disease  causes  irritation  among  the 
fowls,  resulting  in  nonthriving,  nonproductive  stock. 

There  are  no  flocks  absolutely  free  from  infection. 
Parasites  of  some  sort  are  very  apt  to  be  found  in  the 
initial  flock.  Wild  birds  or  persons  may  carry  conta- 
gion and  spread  it  among  the  members  of  the  flock. 
Some  multiply  upon  the  bodies  of  the  fowls,  others 
breed  and  develop  in  the  houses  or  in  the  soil  of  ad- 
joining grounds,  hence  the  necessity  of  systematic  and 
efficient  measures  employed  to  check  or  eradicate 
these  pests.  Some  are  easily  brought  under  subjec- 
tion, while  others  tax  the  skill  and  patience  to  the 
limit.  Disinfection,  then,  is  to  remove  or  destroy  all 
animal  and  vegetable  parasites  together  with  all 
forms  of  contagion. 

There  are  various  methods  of  disinfecting  and  it  is 
quite  necessary  to  understand  those  which  are  most 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases       443 

available  and  which  can  be  used  with  the  least  danger 
both  to  persons  and  fowls. 

For  the  interior  of  houses  and  their  fixtures,  a  hot 
lime  wash  is  one  of  the  best  applications  obtainable 
and  should  be  used  at  least  twice  each  year.  To  pre- 
pare the  wash,  slack  a  half-bushel  of  lime  in  boiling 
water,  after  which  strain  to  remove  all  sediment.  To 
each  gallon  add  one-fourth  pound  carbolic  acid.  Add 
one  pound  common  salt  and  mix  to  the  proper  con- 
sistency by  using  skim  milk.  By  putting  in  the  proper 
coloring  matter  this  wash  may  be  made  to  compare 
favorably  with  a  good  quality  of  paint. 

When  the  poultry  yards  or  runs  have  been  in  use 
for  some  time  and  have  become  contaminated  with 
disease  germs,  a  good  disinfectant  is  necessary  and 
there  is  nothing  better  than  a  five  per  cent  solution 
of  carbolic  acid.  It  may  be  applied  with  an  ordinary 
sprinkling  can  and  should  be  done  both  before  and 
following  a  thorough  spading. 

When  a  gaseous  disinfectant  is  required,  there  is 
nothing  more  effective  than  formaldehyde.  Use  a  five 
per  cent  solution  and  spray  over  the  inside  of  the  in- 
cubator, brooder  or  house,  then  close  tightly  all  win- 
dows and  doors  to  confine  the  fumes.  Fumigating 
with  formaldehyde  may  be  intensified  by  adding  same 
to  w^ater  and  boiling.  If  a  stove  is  not  available,  an 
ordinary,  small  alcohol  lamp  may  be  used.  After 
fumigating,  allow  air  to  circulate  for  some  time  before 
using  as  these  fumes  are  deadly  to  fowds. 

The  use  of  sulphur  in  fumigating  is  highly  recom- 
mended where  the  building  is  sufficiently  tight  to  re- 
tain the  fumes.  Place  some  sand  or  ashes  in  an  old 
pan  or  kettle  and  upon  this  start  a  fire  by  using  small 
pieces  of  wood  saturated  with  kerosene.     Upon  this, 


444        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

or  live  coals  taken  direct  from  the  stove,  place  the 
sulphur.  Close  all  doors,  windows  and  cracks,  and  do 
not  open  for  several  hours.  The  fumigating-  may  be 
made  much  more  effective  by  spraying  just  before  the 
fumigating.  One  pound  of  sulphur  to  eight  or  ten 
square  feet  is  sufficient. 

Many  poultrymen  overlook  the  disinfecting  power 
of  the  sun's  rays  in  their  poultry  house  construction 
and  in  the  exposing  of  all  movable  fixtures  to  the  di- 
rect rays  of  the  sun  as  frequently  as  possible.  Germs 
cannot  live  in  the  presence  of  sunlight.  Keep  in  mind, 
too,  that  everything  in  nature  is  started  in  the  dark, 
which  in  itself  should  be  sufficient  warning  against 
dark  and  poorly  ventilated  houses. 

The  Various  Organs  Grouped  and  Their  Functions — 
The  fowl,  like  the  human  body,  is  an  individual  made 
up  of  several  distinct  parts  each  of  which  has  its 
special  function  to  perform.  These  parts  may  be  com- 
bined into  groups  or  systems  according  as  they  are 
associated  together  for  a  common  purpose.  Hence  the 
digestive  apparatus  is  made  up  of  the  beak,  tongue, 
oesophagus,  crop,  gizzard,  liver  and  intestines,  each 
separate  and  distinct  in  itself  but  when  combined 
perform  the  work  of  obtaining,  preparing  and  assimi- 
lating nutritive  material  for  the  sustenance  of  the 
whole  body. 

Again,  in  the  body  of  the  bird  we  find  the  nostrils, 
larynx,  trachea,  lungs  and  air-cells  which,  when  taken 
together,  form  the  respiratory  apparatus.  The  pur- 
pose of  this  wonderful  system  is  the  supplying  of 
oxygen  to  the  lungs  and  the  ultimate  purifying  of  the 
blood. 

Then  there  is  the  circulatory  system  composed  of 
the  heart,  arteries,  veins,  capillaries  and  lymphatics, 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      445 

combined  for  the  carrying  of  the  nourishment  and  oxy- 
gen to  every  part  of  the  body  and  bringing  away  the 
waste  and  worn-out  material. 

The  urinary  apparatus  is  made  up  of  the  kidneys 
and  the  ureters  that  separate  the  impurities  from  the 
blood  that  cannot  be  handled  through  the  lungs. 

There  are  the  reproductive  organs  which  in  the 
male  consists  of  a  testes,  ras  deferens,  and  in  some 
varieties  a  penis,  and  in  the  female  of  the  ovary  and 
oviduct,  the  purpose  of  this  system  being  the  repro- 
duction and  perpetuation  of  its  kind. 

The  framework  and  muscular  systems  are  made  up 
of  the  bones,  ligaments,  tendons  and  muscles,  giving 
shape  and  movement. 

The  nervous  system  is  composed  of  brain,  spinal 
cord  and  numerous  nerve  fibres  communicating  from 
the  brain  to  every  part  of  the  body. 

Lastly,  there  is  the  tegumentary  system,  comprising 
the  skin  and  feathers,  the  object  being  to  cover  and 
protect  the  body  from  heat  and  cold  and  for  the  ex- 
cretion of  waste  matter. 

It  very  often  happens  we  are  able  to  determine  that 
there  is  some  derangement  of  some  one  of  the  above 
systems  before  it  is  possible  to  locate  the  trouble  in 
one  or  more  of  the  organs.  To  get  at  the  seat  of  a 
disease  and  understand  its  nature,  we  must  know 
these  different  organs,  the  work  each  does  and  how 
they  are  associated  for  the  accomplishment  of  a  com- 
mon purpose. 

Simple  Outfit  for  the  Poultryiiiaii — This  outfit  need 
not  be  made  up  of  numerous  and  costly  instruments, 
but  it  should  contain  a  few  simple  tools  and  some  of 
the  common  remedies.  A  pair  of  good  forceps  is  al- 
most essential.    A  sharp  penknife  is  one  of  the  requi- 


446        Science  and  Art  or  Poultry  Culture 

sites,  also  a  silver  teaspoon  and  tablespoon.  For  in- 
jections, a  small  hand  syringe  is  required  and  an 
atomizer  for  the  light  spraying.  There  should  be  a 
glass  dropper  with  a  small  rubber  bulb,  useful  for 
measuring  and  dropping  liquids.  A  glass  tube  is 
handy  for  blowing  various  powders  into  the  throat. 
A  catheter,  or  rubber  tube  one  foot  long  and  one-half 
inch  in  diameter  is  necessary  at  times  for  conducting 
medicines  direct  to  the  crop,  together  with  a  small 
funnel  to  fit  the  opposite  end  of  the  tube.  There 
should  be  a  good  spraying  pump  for  applying  the 
liquid  disinfectants. 

One  should  keep  constantly  on  hand  a  few  of  the 
more  simple  remedies,  such  as  castor  oil,  sweet  oil, 
turpentine,  alcohol,  witch  hazel,  epsom  salts,  carbolic 
acid,  carbolated  and  plain  vaseline,  arnica,  aconite, 
calomel,  glycerine,  boric  acid,  chloride  of  potash,  qui- 
nine, tincture  of  iron,  delmation  powder  (Persian  in- 
sect powder),  bicarbonate  of  soda  (baking  soda),  sul- 
phur, creolin  and  some  unslaked  lime. 

Douglass  mixture,  which  is  regarded  by  most  poul- 
trymen  as  a  good  tonic,  is  prepared  as  follows :  Sul- 
phate of  iron  (common  copperas),  8  ounces,  sulphuric 
acid,  one-half  fluid  ounce  and  one  gallon  water.  Place 
water  in  a  jug  and  add  the  copperas.  When  dissolved, 
add  the  sulphuric  acid  and  when  the  compound  clears 
it  is  ready  for  use.  It  is  highly  recommended  for 
roup  or  bowel  troubles,  as  well  as  a  tonic. 
Parasites. 

Parasites  cannot  be  termed  a  disease,  but  they  are 
the  cause  of  disease  and  the  most  troublesome  and  annoy- 
ing pests.  Few  realize  to  what  extent  these  parasites 
prevail  among  their  fowls  and  upon  their  premises. 
There  are  many  kinds  of  these  pests  but  they  can  be 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      447 

grouped   as    external   or    internal,   according   as    they 
operate  outside  or  within  the  body. 

External  Parasites — Principal  among  those  that 
prey  upon  the  outside  of  fowls,  are  lice  and  mites. 
There  are  others  that  injure  the  feathers,  causing 
them  to  fall  off.  Others  burrow  under  the  scales  of 
the  slianks  or  toes,  and  others  gnaw  at  the  skin  and 
tissues.  All  of  these  are  enemies  to  successful  poultry 
keeping,  and  to  neglect  them  is  to  fail  at  raising 
poultry. 

Lice — This  question  of  lice  on  fowls  is  recognized 
as  the  most  important  one  confronting  the  poultry- 
man  and  the  successful  breeder  must  use  every  known 
means  and  spare  no  time  or  expense  in  the  eradica- 
tion of  this  pest.  Lice  are  directly  responsible  for 
over  half  the  poultry  diseases,  as  they  sap  the  vitality 
and  leave  the  fowl  weak  and  susceptible  to  any  dis- 
ease prevalent.  Bad  as  lice  are  on  mature  stock,  they 
are  ten  times  as  bad  on  young  chicks  because  the 
bird  is  tender  and  growing  and  needs  all  its  strength 
for  natural  development.  Young  turkeys  die  more 
readily  from  lice  than  from  all  other  causes  com- 
bined. The  heads  of  all  young  stock  should  be  ex- 
amined each  day  for  lice.  This  is  essential  and  should 
be  done  very  carefully  as  they  are  very  easily  over- 
looked. 

All  being  familiar  with  the  bad  results  from  lice, 
now  let  us  consider  some  simple  methods  for  their 
extermination.  There  are  three  successful  methods 
of  destroying  lice : 

(1)  The  providing  of  dust  or  earth  wallows  in 
which  active  hens  will  dust  themselves.  These  dust 
baths  should  be  provided  for  yarded  stock,  a  box  for 
each  pen  being  placed  on  the  south  side  of  the  build- 


448        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

ing.  Dry  earth  should  be  stored  for  use  during  the 
winter  months,  giving  the  fowls  access  during  the 
warm  days.  Sitting  hens  should  be  allowed  this  privi- 
lege. 

(2)  The  second  method  by  which  lice  may  be  de- 
stroyed is  the  use  of  insect  powder.  Pyrethrum  pow- 
der is  regarded  as  best  for  this  purpose,  although  it 
is  regarded  as  somewhat  expensive  and  difficult  to 
obtain  in  the  pure  state.  This  powder  is  harmless  to 
the  fowl,  but  certain  death  to  the  lice.  Many  of  the 
so-called  insect  powders  prove  harmful,  especially  to 
chicks.  Ordinary  tobacco  dust  is  used  for  the  same 
purpose.  Insect  powder  is  applied  by  holding  the 
bird  by  the  feet  over  a  barrel  or  box  and  thoroughly 
working  the  powder  into  the  feathers  and  fluff.  All 
cock  birds  and  sitting  hens  should  be  given  frequent 
applications  as  they  are  apt  to  neglect  the  natural 
dusting.  Where  large  numbers  of  young  or  half- 
grown  stock  are  to  be  treated,  it  becomes  too  tedious 
and  expensive  to  dust  each  one  separately.  Place 
fifteen  or  twenty  in  an  ordinary,  tight  barrel.  Throw 
the  powder  over  them,  put  on  the  head  of  the  barrel 
and  roll  the  barrel  for  a  short  time.  This  is  effective 
but  causes  the  birds  some  annoyance. 

(3)  The  third  method  applies  more  particularly  to 
young  chicks  and  consists  in  applying  some  oil  or 
grease  on  the  head,  under  the  wings  and  about  the 
vent..  Do  not  grease  them  all  over.  With  strong, 
vigorous  stock  and  careful  management,  the  natural 
dust  bath  is  about  all  that  is  necessary  to  fight  lice. 

Mites — This  subject,  like  that  of  lice,  is  more  or  less 
familiar  to  all  and  yet  vermin  has  been  the  cause  of 
many  discontinuing  the  poultry  business  and  pre- 
vented many  others  from  going  into  it.     They  are  the 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      449 

cause,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  of  many  diseases. 
They  suck  the  lifeblood  from  the  fowl  by  day  and 
night  and  are  a  constant  worry  from  the  time  the 
chick  is  hatched.  Mites  are  about  one-fortieth  of  an 
inch  in  length  and  very  hard  to  detect.  When  not  full 
of  blood  they  are  yellowish,  whitish  or  almost  trans- 
parent. They  are  often  found  in.  clusters  and  after 
some  time  seem  to  disintegrate  into  dust,  powder  or 
webby  mass.  After  having  filled  themselves  with 
blood  through  the  skin  of  the  fowl  they  are  red  in 
color  and  sometimes  called  "  red  spiders."  They  do 
not  remain  upon  the  fowl  after  being  filled  with  blood 
but  retreat  to  hiding  places  in  cracks  or  crevices  near 
the  roosting  place. 

During  sultry  summer  weather,  they  propagate 
very  rapidly  and  if  the  houses  are  not  cared  for  they 
may  remain  upon  the  fowls  during  the  daytime, 
especially  if  the  fowls  are  inclined  to  remain  about  the 
house.  Sitting  hens  may  be  driven  from  their  nests 
or  die  from  loss  of  blood  from  these  little  blood- 
suckers. 

IMites  are  injurious,  not  only  on  account  of  the  blood 
which  is  abstracted,  but  because  of  the  itching,  pain 
and  loss  of  rest  which  is  a  necessary  consequence  of 
their  activity.  Young  pigeons  and  cage  birds  are  con- 
stant sufferers  from  these  pests.  The  English  spar- 
row is  regarded  as  their  chief  disseminators. 

The  only  way  to  treat  mites  successfully  is  to  begin 
early  in  the  season  and  keep  constantly  after  them. 
Alites  do  not  breathe  through  the  pores  of  the  skin 
as  do  lice  so  that  the  same  remedies  used  for  lice  will 
not  apply.  The  ordinary  method  of  fumigating  with 
sulphur  is  very  detrimental  to  mites,  however,  the 
application  of  liquids  is  the  most  satisfactory  method 


450        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

for  their  complete  extermination.  There  are  various 
liquids  to  be  used,  the  cheapest  being  scalding  water. 
Hot  water  destroys  the  eggs  as  well  as  the  mites. 
Whitewash  is  a  good  remedy  as  it  buries  and  destroys 
both  mites  and  the  eggs.  A  solution  of  one  pint  of 
carbolic  acid  to  a  gallon  of  kerosene  makes  an  ex- 
cellent spray.  Fumigating  with  carbon  disulphide  is 
very  effective  where  building  is  sufficiently  tight  to 
retain  the  fumes.  The  liquid  lice  and  mite  killers  on 
the  market  are  usually  very  effective,  killing  by  con- 
tact as  well  as  by  the  vapor.  One  successful  grower 
uses  nothing  but  crude  oil  as  it  comes  from  the  rock. 
This  mixed  with  creolin  makes  an  excellent  spray. 
All  movable  fixtures  should  be  dipped  frequently  in 
this  mixture.  One  authority  recommends  and  uses 
only  hot  alum  water  as  a  spray.  Throw  powdered 
ashes  over  the  droppings  and  into  the  cracks  and  crev- 
ices.   Zenoleum  is  also  very  effective. 

Depluming  Mites — These  small  insects  live  on 
fowls  at  the  base  of  the  quills  and  by  their  operations 
weaken  or  cause  the  removal  of  the  plumage.  The 
neck  and  head  may  become  bare,  the  skin  being  soft, 
smooth  and  of  a  pinkish  tint.  These  little  mites  may 
be  detected  upon  the  base  of  these  quills  in  the  region 
afflicted.  The  most  satisfactory  treatment  for  this 
mite  is  the  free  use  of  carbolated  vaseline. 

Internal  Parasites — Worms  are  frequently  present 
in  the  intestines  and  ceca  of  chickens,  particularly 
young  chicks,  often  causing  considerable  loss  by  tak- 
ing the  nourishment  that  should  be  used  for  the  re- 
plenishing of  the  blood  of  the  fowl  and  when  present 
in  large  numbers  interfere  with  the  digestive  processes. 
They  may  cause  severe  cases  of  diarrhoea  or  a  com- 
plete stoppage  of  the  intestinal  tract. 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      451 

There  are  three  kinds  of  worms  that  warrant  sug- 
gestion for  treatment.  The  round  worm  and  tape 
worm  are  more  or  less  common  in  the  digestive  canal 
and  will  be  treated  here  while  the  gape  worm  is  dis- 
cussed under  the  heading  of  gapes,  elsewhere  in  this 
chapter. 

The  round  worm  takes  its  name  from  its  shape  and 
is  the  most  common  of  parasitic  worms,  varying  in 
size  from  a  half  to  five  inches  in  length.  A  few  of 
these  cause  the  fowl  but  slight  inconvenience,  but  when 
present  in  large  numbers  there  is  a  tendency  towards 
stoppage  and  consequent  diarrhoea.  They  are  rarely 
expelled  in  any  considerable  quantities  or  if  they  are 
they  soon  decompose  or  are  eaten  by  other  fowls  so 
that  the  presence  of  worms  is  rarely  known  until  the 
bird  dies  or  is  killed. 

The  external  symptoms  are  very  similar  to  those 
accompanying  indigestion,  the  bird  being  thin,  a  pale- 
ness of  wattles  accompanied  by  some  diarrhoea.  If 
worms  are  suspected,  make  an  effort  to  remove  them. 
Give  two  grains  of  santonine  for  each  bird,  followed 
in  two  hours  by  a  teaspoonful  of  castor  oil.  Watch 
for  results,  burning  all  worms. 

The  tape  worm  is  much  less  common  than  the  round 
w^orm.  They  are  made  up  of  short,  flat  sections,  each 
section  capable  of  development  into  the  complete 
worm.  Portions  of  these  worms  may  be  seen  in  the 
droppings.  Onions  or  garlic  are  excellent  for  ex- 
pelling or  preventing  worms.  They  should  be  chopped 
fine  and  fed  early  while  fowls  are  hungry.  If  the 
worms  are  suspected  or  discovered,  give  three-fourths 
of  a  teaspoonful  of  powdered  Areca  nut,  or  five  or 
six  drops  of  male  fern.  Follow  this  with  epsom  salts 
or  castor  oil. 


452        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Objectionable  Habits. 
Feather  eating  is  properly  termed  an  objectionable 
habit  and  one  that  is  quite  difficult  to  cure.  The  fowl 
may  pluck  out  and  eat  its  own  feathers  or  feathers 
of  other  members  of  the  flock.  A  cock  may  be  found 
standing  quietly  and  holding  his  head  down  while  the 
hens  pluck  the  feathers  from  his  head  till  it  becomes 
bare  and  oftentimes  streams  with  blood.  In  other 
instances  hens  have  been  seen  picking  feathers  from 
each  other  until  they  were  almost  naked.  The  young 
and  tender  feathers  containing  blood  are  preferred, 
which  would  indicate  that  a  lack  of  proper  ration  is 
one  of  the  chief  causes.  Lack  of  exercise,  the  over- 
feeding of  too  stimulating  foods  are  among  the  many 
causes  that  may  bring  on  this  trouble  and  habit.  This 
vice  is  acquired  during  the  spring  or  at  molting  time 
and  characterized  by  the  loss  of  plumage  and  redness 
of  the  posterior  part  of  the  back.  Anointing  the 
feathers  about  the  picked  area  with  an  ointment  made 
by  mixing  a  teaspoonful  of  aloes  to  a  cupful  of  lard 
is  usually  sufficient  to  stop  the  habit,  but  where  it 
fails  some  use  a  "poultry  bit  "  which  is  made  of  soft 
leather  large  enough  to  permit  bird  to  eat  but  pre- 
vents holding  to  a  feather.  These  bits  are  held  in 
place  by  fine  wire  run  through  the  comb.  Keep  the 
birds  busy  by  keeping  plenty  of  bones  in  the  pen  for 
them  to  work  on  together  with  plenty  of  clean  scratching 
material.  If  none  of  these  sug^^ested  remedies  prevail, 
it  is  better  to  kill  the  one  or  more  causing  the  trouble, 
thus  lessening  the  danger  of  its  spreading  throughout  the 
whole  flock.  WHien  there  is  trouble  of  this  nature,  it  is 
well  to  feed  plenty  of  sulphur.  Give  a  teaspoonful  to 
every  three  fowls  in  a  daily  mash.  Also  supply  meat 
and  vegetables. 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      453 

Egg  Eating — This  habit  sometimes  becomes  a  very 
serious  vice  among  fowls.  The  heavy  breeds,  due  to 
their  clumsiness  are  much  more  liable  to  the  trouble. 
The  trouble  is  almost  invariably  caused  by  frozen 
eggs  or  the  accidental  breaking  of  an  egg  in  the  nest. 
A  broken  egg  is  a  tempting  morsel  and  once  the  habit 
is  developed  it  is  almost  impossible  to  eradicate  the 
trouble.  Whatever  is  recognized  as  causing  the 
breaking  of  the  eggs  is  regarded  as  the  cause  of  the 
habit.  An  attempt  should  be  made  to  remove  this 
cause.  The  shells  may  be  too  thin  or  the  hen  may 
lack  the  proper  ration  to  supply  a  firm  shell.  Feed 
plenty  of  lime  or  oyster  shell  and  see  that  the  nests 
contain  plenty  of  straw  or  other  good  nesting  material. 
Keep  the  nests  dark  and  each  supplied  with  a  glass 
nest  egg.  If  the  habit  is  formed,  blow  out  the  con- 
tents of  an  egg  and  fill  the  shell  with  a  paste  consist- 
ing of  mustard,  aloes  or  other  disagreeable  compound 
and  place  where  readily  found  by  the  hens.  Remove 
all  egg-eaters  from  the  flock  and  unless  especially 
valuable,  they  had  better  be  served. 

Picking  One  Another — Birds  sometimes  develop  a 
habit  of  picking  at  each  other  and  especially  is  this 
true  among  young  and  improperly  fed  stock.  It  is 
noticeable  where  there  has  been  an  insufficient  supply 
of  meat  rations.  Birds  are  very  apt  to  start  this  habit 
if  they  secure  a  taste  of  blood  from  some  member  of 
the  flock  through  injury.  They  develop  the  cannibal 
instincts  very  readily,  not  stopping  till  the  unfortunate 
victim  is  dead  and  utterly  devoured.  If  the  trouble 
is  discovered  in  time,  by  using  lard  and  aloes  on  the 
injured  part  and  removing  from  the  flock  for  a  few 
days  the  chick  may  be  saved  and  the  progress  of  the 
vice  checked  among  the  members  of  the  flock. 


454        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 


ROSE  COMB   BLACK  MINORCA. 
Courtesy  of  Lloyd  C.  Mishler. 


\'iCES,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      455 
Enemies. 

Every  poultryman  realizes  only  too  well  the  annoy- 
ance to  his  flocks  from  such  enemies  as  hawks,  crows 
and  owls,  also  rats,  weasels,  minks,  skunks,  coyotes, 
foxes,  etc.  The  section  of  the  country  and  local  con- 
ditions determine  to  what  extent  and  with  what  form 
of  enemy  one  is  troubled. 

Hawks  are  troublesome  only  during-  a  short  time, 
when  the  mother  hawk  has  to  feed  her  young.  x\t 
such  times  they  become  quite  brave  and  will  succeed 
in  doing  considerable  damage  unless  constant  care  is 
given.  Shooting  at  them  from  time  to  time  is  very 
eflfective  in  keeping  them  at  a  distance.  Hawks  are 
apt  to  be  a  source  of  annoyance  throughout  the  whole 
season.  The  loss  from  hawks  and  crows  is  very  slight 
among  the  fanciers  within  the  city  limits,  but  among 
farmers  and  those  depending  upon  open  range  it 
sometimes  becomes  a  very  serious  matter. 

One  of  the  most  satisfactory  remedies  in  such  cases 
is  to  take  some  weak  or  inferior  chicks  and  coop  them 
with  a  hen  in  an  exposed  position.  Mix  some 
strychnine  and  apply  to  the  chicks  on  top  of  the  neck 
near  the  head  and  under  each  wing.  One  chick  is 
sufficient  for  each  hawk  or  crow. 

Old  buildings  or  board  piles,  trash  heaps  and  neg- 
lected quarters  are  very  apt  to  be  infested  with  various 
forms  of  rodents,  such  as  rats,  skunks,  weasels,  etc. 
Rats  may  be  exterminated  by  means  of  a  good  rat 
terrior  dog  or  ferret.  An  effective  method  is  to  pour 
sulphate  of  hydrogen  into  their  holes  or  runways, 
catching  them  with  a  dog  when  they  appear.  Another 
remedy  is  to  mix  equal  parts  of  corn  meal  and  plaster 
of  Paris  and  place  where  the  rats  can  easily  find  it. 


456        Science  and  Art  or  Poultry  Culture 

The  hardening  of  the  plaster  of  Paris  kills  the  rat. 
Skunks,  weasels,  foxes  and  coyotes  give  but  little 
trouble  except  where  the  flocks  are  left  almost  entirely 
to  their  own  keeping.  There  is  but  little  trouble  from 
the  above,  except  at  night  time  and  this  can  be  easily 
overcome   bv    careful    liousing   and    right    care.      All 


BLACK  OKPINGTON. 
Courtesy  of   Foxhurst   Farm. 

foundations  should  be  of  cement  and  where  wooden 
floors  are  used  should  contain  a  layer  of  very  fine 
wire  mesh  which  will  prevent  any  boring  from  under- 
neath. Foxes,  skunks  and  coyotes  may  be  shot, 
trapped  or  poisoned. 

Diseases. 

Anemia — A  wasting  and  weakness  of  fowls  caused  by 
too  poor  or  lack  of  blood,  due  to  improper  nourishment 
or  the  draining  of  blood  by  parasites.  The  comb  and 
wattles  turn  pale  and  the  bird  appears  listless. 

House  such  birds  in  a  clean,  well-ventilated  pen  and 
encourage  exercise  by  scattering  food  in  clean  litter. 
A  tonic  of  ten  drops  of  tincture  of   ferric   chloride  to 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases       457 

one  pint  of  water  may  be  given.  Allow  no  other  drink 
for  a  short  time. 

Apoplexy — This  is  a  disease  of  the  nervous  system 
of  the  fowl,  due  to  an  excessive  flow  of  blood  to  the 
brain.  The  victim  is  attacked  very  suddenly  and  may 
fall  while  feeding  or  may  be  found  dead  upon  the  nest 
or  under  the  perches.  But  slight  warning  is  given  and 
few  cases  survive.  The  victims  of  this  disease  are  usu- 
ally the  plumpest  and  apparently  the  healthiest  of  the 
flock,  the  disease  being  caused  by  the  overfeeding  of 
too  stimulating  foods. 

The  first  s}mptoms  are  giddiness  and  staggering, 
followed  by  drooping  of  the  head  and  spasmodic  move- 
ments of  the  limbs. 

]\Iedical  treatment  in  such  cases  is  of  little  avail. 
Should  the  sufferer  be  alive  when  found,  open  a  vein 
on  the  neck  or  under  the  wing.  This  reduces  the  pres- 
sure on  the  brain  and  may  perfect  a  cure.  The  bird 
should  then  be  kept  on  a  limited  diet  of  green  food  in 
order  to  reduce  the  surplus  fat.  As  a  preventive  meas- 
ure, regulate  the  diet  and  induce  exercise. 

Black  Head — This  is  a  disease  common  to  turkeys 
and  dift'ers  in  many  ways  from  any  other  malady  af- 
fecting poultry.  The  disease  has  been  common  for  a 
great  manv  }ears,  but  it  has  not  been  described  until 
its  study  w-as  undertaken  by  the  U.  S.  Government. 

The  symptoms  are  obscure  and  not  capable  of  ready 
detection  until  after  the  disease  has  made  some  progress. 
Young  birds  are  most  susceptible  and  it  is  thought 
infection  occurs  very  early  in  life.  The  disease  is 
caused  by  a  parasitic  germ  which  is  taken  into  the  sys- 
tem with  food  or  water.  The  disease  begins  in  the 
caeca  but  the  inflammation  may  spread  to  other  parts  of 


458        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

the  intestine  or  to  the  abdominal  wall.  The  liver  is 
usually  affected  in  such  cases. 

The  treatment  consists  largely  in  methods  of  pre- 
vention. All  roosting  places,  runs  and  yards  soon  be- 
come infected  where  the  disease  has  been  prevalent  for 
any  length  of  time.  All  infected  stock  should  be  killed 
and  the  quarters  thoroughly  disinfected  before  intro- 
ducing new  birds. 

The  medical  treatment  of  diseased  turkeys  has  not 
proved  satisfactory  in  the  majority  of  cases.  Salmon  rec- 
ommends a  combination  of  sulphur,  five  to  ten  grains, 
and  sulphate  of  iron,  one  grain,  to  be  given  at  a  dose  to 
mildly  affected  birds  as  a  preventive  measure.  Turkevs 
should  be  reared  entirely  away  from  where  other  fowls 
are  kept. 

Black  Rot — This  is  a  disease  of  the  comb  and  is  con- 
fined almost  exclusively  to  the  tall-combed  varieties. 
The  trouble  is  due  to  impaired  circulation  through  the 
comb  and  seems  to  be  associated  with  diseases  of  the 
liver.  The  trouble  indicates  itself  by  a  darkening  of 
the  comb.  It  changes  from  purple  to  blue  then  to  black. 
If  the  fowl  is  otherwise  healthy,  the  diseased  portion 
of  the  comb  may  become  separated  from  the  healthy.  This 
necessarily  leaves  an  unsightly  stub  and  unfits  the  bird 
for  show-room  purposes.  Some  choose  to  term  the  dis- 
ease "  dry  rot  "  or  "  moist  rot  "  according  as  the  dis- 
eased portion  is  dry  or  moist.  But  little  idea  can  be 
given  as  to  the  exact  cause  of  the  disease,  but  in  most 
cases  it  can  be  attributed  to  sudden  chilling  or  the 
result  of  confinement  in  close,  damp  houses.  The  bird 
is  usually  inactive,  having  but  little  appetite,  and  loose- 
ness of  bowels. 

If  taken  in  time,  the  disease  will  respond  to  treat- 
ment.     Relieve    the    liver    trouble   by    adding    one    tea- 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      459 

spoonful  muriate  of  ammonia  to  a  pint  of  drinking 
water.  Correct  the  regular  ration  and  give  plenty  of 
green  food,  keeping  the  fowl  in  a  dry,  clean,  sunny 
room.  Use  carbolated  vaseline  on  the  affected  part 
of  comb. 

Brain  Congestion — This  is  a  disease  quite  common 
among  fowls  that  are  constantly  exposed  to  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun,  over-fat  fowls  and  male  birds 
during  the  breeding  season.  It  also  may  result  from  a 
blow  upon  the  head  of  the  fowl  or  it  may  accompany 
some  of  the  infectious  diseases.  Fowls  subject  to 
worms  are  prone  to  the  disease.  The  bird  staggers  as 
it  attempts  moving  about  or  may  walk  backwards  or 
in  a  circle.  It  may  fall  to  the  ground  accompanied 
by  convulsive  movements  of  the  limbs.  Get  the  pa- 
tient to  a  cool  place  and  apply  cool  applications  to  the 
head.  Give  thirty  grains  of  Epsom  salts  or  a  table- 
spoonful  of  castor  oil. 

Breakdown — A  disease  not  uncommon  among  young 
hens  and  characterized  by  the  dragging  down  of 
the  abdominal  walls  giving  the  hen  an  ungainly  ap- 
pearance. It  is  the  result,  usually,  of  an  excessive  corn 
diet  or  the  over  feeding  of  other  fat-producing  ele- 
ments. In  the  majority  of  cases,  it  is  well  to  market 
birds  at  once  as  they  are  unfitted  for  breeding  or  lay- 
ing if  cured.  Avoid  the  trouble  by  exercising  care 
in  feeding. 

Broken  Bones — Unless  a  bird  is  especially  valuable 
as  a  breeder,  it  is  not  advisable  to  attempt  repairing 
a  broken  bone.  The  better  way  is  to  prepare  such  for 
the  table  at  once. 

However,  should  it  seem  wise  to  set  a  broken  bone, 
bring  the  ends  together,  making  a  perfect  union  of  the 
parts.     ]\Iake  splints  of  pasteboard,  and  bind  them  over 


460        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

the  break  after  being  wrapped  with  coatings  of  adhesive 
paper  or  court  plaster.  Separate  bird  from  the  rest 
of  the  flock  and  keep  as  quiet  as  possible.  Should 
fever  result,  bathe  parts  in  cold  water  and  give  aconite 
internally. 

Bronchitis — This  trouble  is  really  the  result  of  a  neg- 
lected cold.  As  a  result  of  this,  the  bronchial  tubes 
have  become  inflamed  and,  as  we  often  speak  concern- 
ing ourselves,  the  cold  has  settled  on  the  chest.  It  is 
often  spoken  of  as  bronchial  catarrh  and  rattling  in  the 
chest.  This  disease  is  most  prevalent  during  the  fall 
and  winter  seasons  when  sudden  changes  in  the  cli- 
matic conditions  are  not  uncommon.  Old  birds,  and 
especially  those  having  weak  constitutions,  are  more 
liable  to  the  trouble. 

It  is  usually  caused  by  exposure  to  dampness,  drafts, 
foul  quarters  or  irritating  dust  and  sudden  change  from 
warm  to  cold  quarters  or  z'ice  7'crsa.  Too  close  con- 
finement accompanied  by  sweating  is  one  of  the  surest 
means  of  bringing  about  this  and  similar  troubles.  One 
of  the  main  symptoms  is  the  excessive  temperature  of 
the  fowl  accompanied  by  a  decidedly  thirsty  condition. 
Coughing,  difficulty  in  breathing  and  in  some  cases  a 
whistling  are  among  the  other  symptoms. 

First  place  the  patient  in  warm,  well-ventilated  quar- 
ters and  offer  a  mash  of  bread  and  bran  or  middlings 
moistened  with  sweet  milk  and  containing  two  grains 
of  black  antimony.  Give  this  twice  daily.  If  taken  in 
time,  one  drop  of  tincture  of  aconite  every  four  or 
five  hours  usually  allays  the  trouble.  Give  ten  drops  of 
turpentine  in  a  scant  tablespoonful  of  castor  oil,  dis- 
continuing the  oil  as  soon  as  bowel  is  relieved.  If 
breathing  is  difficult,  clean  mouth  and  nostrils  with  a 
weak  solution  of  creolin  and  give  syrup  of  ipecac. 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      461 

Biiiiiblcfoof — A  tender,  inflamed  condition  of  the  bot- 
tom of  the  foot.  Some  pronounce  it  an  inflamed  corn. 
Bumblefoot  may  be  the  result  of  a  bruise  caused  by 
fowl  jumping  from  a  high  roost  to  the  hard  floor  or 
the  presence  of  splinters  or  glass    in  the  foot. 

Remove  any  foreign  substance  and  if  pus  has  formed 
open  the  bruise  and  squeeze  firmly.  Wash  out  the 
wound  with  a  one  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 
By  soaking  the  foot  in  strong  vinegar,  cases  of  this 
kind  may  be  avoided  if  taken  in  time.  Sometimes  it 
is  wise  to  poultice  with  linseed  meal  before  lancing. 

Canker — Canker  borders  so  closely  on  a  mild  form 
of  diphtheria  that  any  soreness  of  the  mouth  should  be 
regarded  with  alarm  and  all  suspects  sent  to  the  hos- 
pital at  once  for  treatment.  All  fowls,  vigorous  and 
weak  alike  are  liable  to  canker,  but  the  games  seem  to 
be  the  most  susceptible.  Birds  subjected  to  travel  or 
the  show  room  seem  especially  inclined  to  the  trouble. 

If  possible,  remove  the  ulcers  with  a  quill  and  wash 
out  the  mouth  and  throat  with  a  solution  of  equal  parts 
of  chlorate  of  potash  and  alum.  Blow  powdered  pot- 
ash into  the  throat  b}-  means  of  a  paper  funnel  or  straw. 
This  simple  treatment  should  relieve  the  most  stubborn 
cases. 

Catarrh — This  is  one  of  the  most  common  dis- 
eases of  birds  and  is  a  result  of  undue  exposure  to  cold 
and  dampness  or  subjecting  fowls  to  keen  drafts  of  air. 
Simple  catarrh  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes of  the  air  passages  above  the  windpipe.  We  are 
apt  to  confuse  this  disease  Avith  roup.  A  bird  sick  with 
catarrh  is  liable  to  roup  if  exposed  to  continued  unsan- 
itary conditions.  One  of  the  first  symptoms  is  a 
bubbling  at  the  nose.  Mucus  secretions  form  and  col- 
lect in  the  eves,   nose  and  mouth  which  thickens   and 


462        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

causes  wheezing  and  choking.  In  some  cases  birds  be- 
come drowsy,  plumage  is  erect  and  nostrils  entirely  close. 
If  the  cause  is  allowed  to  persist,  the  bird  soon  dies. 

The  disease  is  best  prevented  by  keeping  fowls  in  a 
clean,  dry  and  well-ventilated  place  free  from  drafts. 
A  simple  treatment  is  to  wash  out  the  mouth  twice  daily, 
with  a  boric  acid  solution  (15  grains  borasic  acid  to 
a  pint  of  water).  A  solution  of  witch  hazel  or  car- 
bolic acid  is  er^cellent  for  cleansing  affected  parts. 
Place  fowl  on  a  diet  of  raw  eggs  and  bread  soaked  in 
milk  and  house  in  clean  quarters. 

Chicken  Pox — This  is  a  contagious  disease  common 
to  chickens,  turkeys,  ducks,  pigeons  and  sometimes 
geese.  It  is  especially  destructive  among  young  chick- 
ens throughout  most  of  the  Southern  States.  The  dis- 
ease is  most  prevalent  during  the  warm,  damp  days  of 
the  autumn  months,  hence  the  late  hatches  are  most 
liable. 

The  disease  is  characterized  by  an  eruption  of  yel- 
low nodules  or  scabby  ulcers  that  may  be  found  on  any 
part  of  the  body  but  most  liable  to  be  on  the  head  or 
underneath  the  wings.  The  liquid  that  comes  from  the 
ulcers  tends  to  dry  and   form  a  rough   scabby  surface. 

But  little  medicine  is  needed  and  for  the  eruption 
there  is  nothing  better  than  plain  carbolated  vaseline 
or  a  five  per  cent  solution  of  creolin.  Feed  a  simple 
mash  containing  chopped  clover.  This  trouble  is  not 
dangerous  unless  there  is  great  neglect  in  housing  and 
feeding. 

Choking — Frequently  a  piece  of  bone,  grass  or  some 
foreign  substance  becomes  lodged  in  the  throat  of  a 
bird,  causing  evident  distress.  Without  much  trouble, 
the  irritant  can  be  located  and  by  using  care  and  good 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      463 

judgment,  be  successfully  removed.  Sweet  oil  aids 
materially  in  such  cases. 

Cholera — Of  all  the  diseases,  cholera  is  the  least  un- 
derstood and  most  dreaded.  It  is  very  contagious  and 
most  prevalent  where  corn  is  the  chief  diet.  It  attacks 
all  varieties  of  domesticated  fowls  and  is  found  among 
some  species  of  wild  birds. 

Many  of  the  symptoms  are  identical  with  other  dis- 
eases like  indigestion,  enteritis,  etc.  The  external  symp- 
toms of  a  cholera  patient  are  a  dejected,  sleepy,  droopy 
appearance.  Birds  have  great  thirst,  a  slow,  staggering 
walk  and  gape  frequently.  The  bird  may  fall  from 
weakness.  Comb  and  wattles  turn  pale  and  dark. 
Another  early  indication  of  the  disease  is  a  yellowish 
color  of  the  urates,  or  that  part  of  the  excrement  com- 
ing from  the  kidneys.  In  the  healthy  bird  this  is  pure 
white  though  it  may  be  slightly  discolored  from  the 
effects  of  other  diseases.  While  this  is  not  absolute 
proof  of  the  presence  of  cholera,  it  is  a  valuable  in- 
dication and  an  effort  should  be  put  forth  at  once  to 
check  its  course.  At  first  the  droppings  may  be  of  a 
greenish  color  and  afterwards  becomes  thin  and  frothy. 
Prostration  follows  and  death  soon  results.  A  post- 
mortem examination  shows  a  gizzard  with  dried-up 
food  and  the  crop  inflated  with  sour  mucus  and  food. 
Liver  is  large,  tender  and  flabby  and  often  found  split 
open.  Intestines  are  inflamed  and  filled  with  a  green- 
ish matter. 

The  treatment  or  manner  of  combating  cholera  must 
be  prompt  and  active  and  all  sanitary  precautions 
strictly  followed.  At  the  first  intimation  of  the  disease, 
quarantine  all  doubtful  birds.  Scald  all  drinking  dishes 
and  feeding  utensils  and  thoroughly  clean  and  disin- 
fect every  house  and  run.     Make  an  honest  effort  to 


464        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

kill  every  germ.  All  suspected  or  sick  birds  should  have 
one  ounce  of  sulpho-carbolate  of  zinc  added  to  two 
quarts  of  drinking  water — this  to  constitute  the  only 
drink  for  several  days.  There  are  many  internal  rem- 
edies recommended  but  should  one  be  so  unfortunate 
as  to  have  real  cholera  in  his  flocks  the  most  satisfactory 
remedy  is  the  block  and  axe.  Vaccination  cannot  be 
recommended  as  a  preventive,  as  it  is  known  that  a. 
vaccine  which  is  safe  for  one  breed  may  be  deadly  for 
another.     Burn  or  bury  deep  all  cholera  victims. 

Colds — Fowls  have  "  bad  colds,"  causing  inflammation 
of  the  throat,  nostrils  and  eyes,  with  a  thin,  watery  dis- 
charge from  these  parts  and  a  wheezing  and  sudden 
shaking  of  the  head.  A  cold  is  liable  to  lead  to  any  of 
the  more  serious  troubles  such  as  catarrh,  canker,  bron- 
chitis, pneumonia  or  roup,  hence  one  should  be  on 
guard  for  the  first  symptoms.  A  cold  may  be  contract- 
ed very  readily  if  the  fowl  is  allowed  to  roost  in  drafts, 
on  the  damp  ground  or  in  too  crowded  quarters,  even 
in  warm  weather. 

To  ward  off  or  check  a  cold,  mix  together  equal  parts 
of  black  pepper,  ginger,  mustard  and  flour,  adding 
enough  lard  to  form  a  small  pellet,  giving  two  or  three 
of  these  each  evening.  Place  the  birds  in  dry,  sunny 
quarters,  feeding  pure  food  and  water  containing  a  small 
amount  of  kerosene  wdth  green  food  sufficient  to  keep 
bowels  in  good  order.  Inject  into  the  nostrils  and 
roof  of  the  mouth  a  mixture  of  sweet  oil,  kerosene 
and  a  small  amount  of  carbolic  acid  or  turpentine. 
Quick  relief  can  be  obtained  by  smoking  birds  with 
resin. 

Congestion  of  the  Lungs — Birds  that  are  molting 
and  young  fowls  are  liable  to  be  troubled  with  conges- 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      465 

tion  of  the  lungs.  It  may  also  occur  in  overfat  birds 
and  those  containing  an  oversupply  of  rich  blood.  This 
blood  becomes  too  thick  and  circulates  with  more  dif- 
ficulty than  under  the  normal  condition  and  as  a  result 
the  circulatory  system  in  the  delicate  vessels  of  the 
lungs  become  clogged  or  congested  and  are  liable  to 
rupture.  The  bird  seems  sleepy  and  stupid  with  no 
disposition  to  move  about.  A  bloody  mucus  may  es- 
cape from  the  moutli.  Comb  turns  dark.  The  symptoms 
are  very  pronounced  and  come  on  very  suddenly,  the 
bird  living  but  a  short  time. 

As  most  of  the  well-developed  cases  prove  fatal,  the.. 
treatment  consists  largely  of  preventive  measures.  The 
young  fowl  should  be  protected  from  cold  and  all  forms 
of  exposure  while  molting.  Plenty  of  green  food,  roots 
or  fruit  should  be  given  any  fowls  subject  to  confinement. 
Any  trouble  having  to  do  with  the  lungs  is  serious  and 
should  be  strictly  guarded  against. 

Constipation — Constipation  is  a  dryness  or  hardening 
of  the  contents  of  the  intestinal  organs.  It  is  met  with 
in  both  young  and  old  fowls,  but  is  most  frequent  in 
young  stock.  Brooder  chicks  are  very  susceptible  to 
this  trouble.  Any  portion  of  the  intestinal  tract  may  be- 
come obstructed  and  distended,  caused  from  accumu- 
lations of  gravel  or  parasitic  worms.  It  may  be  caused 
from  feeding  too  dry  foods  or  follow  attacks  of  di- 
arrhea. Very  often,  in  brooder  chickens,  the  vent  may 
be  completely  stopped  by  the  saturation  of  the  feathers 
in  this  region,  followed  by  becoming  dry  and  hard, 
stopping  the  passage  of  the  bowels.  Soften  the  mass 
by  soaking  in  warm  water  and  gently  picking  away 
the  obstruction.  If  the  cloaca  contains  any  hardened 
matter,  it  should  be  softened  by  injecting  warm  water 
or    olive    oil    followed   by    manipulations    which    should 


466        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

expel  the  obstruction.  In  the  more  severe  cases  some 
blunt  instrument  is  necessary  for  the  removal  of  the 
contents  of  the  cloaca.  Should  the  obstruction  be  too 
high  for  external  treatment  some  good  laxative  be- 
comes necessary.  Twenty  grains  of  Epsom  salts  in 
a  small  amount  of  water  or  a  tablespoonful  of  castor  oil 
usually  affords  prompt  relief.  Care  and  skill  in  feeding 
will  reduce  the  number  of  cases  of  diarrhea  and  con- 
stipation. 

Consumption — Consumption  is  apt  to  follow  a  neg- 
lected case  of  pneumonia,  bronchitis  or  roup.  As  in  the 
human  race,  the  disease  is  limited  to  the  lung  tissue. 
The  patient  weakens  without  any  apparent  cause  and 
becomes  thin  and  light.  Comb,  wattles  and  skin  turn 
pale  in  color  and  in  a  short  time  the  bird  is  dead.  Like 
tuberculosis,  it  does  not  appear  in  sturdy,  well-cared- 
for  birds.  There  is  much  satisfaction  in  keeping  stock 
bred  to  the  highest  standard  of  health,  so  that  these 
chronic  troubles  find  poor  soil  for  development.  The 
hatchet  is  the  best  and  most  satisfactory  remedy.  Thor- 
oughly  disinfect  the  premises. 

Corns — Corns  are  the  result  of  bruises  caused  by 
fowls  alighting  upon  hard  floors  from  high  perches 
or  by  the  use  of  small  or  too  narrow  roosts.  Pare  down 
the  thickened  portion  and  apply  tincture  of  iodine  until 
inflammation  is  removed.  Remove  the  cause  by  making 
perches  near  the  floor  and  of  wide  flat  boards.  Cover 
the  floor  with  a  layer  of  dirt  and  straw.        ? 

Crop  BoiDid — Due  to  the  overloading  of  dry  grain 
or  the  eating  of  dry  grass,  leaves,  strings  or  feathers, 
the  crop  may  become  impacked  and  distended. 

The  usual  method  of  handling  such  cases  is  to  give 
sweet  oil,  suspend  the  bird  by  its  legs  and  work  the 
contents  down  and  out  of  the  mouth.     In  severe  cases, 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      467 

a  surgical  operation  becomes  necessary,  in  which  case 
phick  the  feathers  over  a  square  inch  of  surface  cov- 
ering the  breast.  Cut  the  outer  skin  lengthwise  of  the 
fowl  about  an  inch  long.  Then  make  a  small  incision 
in  the  crop  and  by  using  good  judgment  the  contents 
can  be  removed.  After  removal,  sew  walls  of  crop  to- 
gether, using  sterilized  catgut  which  will  absorb.  Then 
make  three  stitches  in  the  skin.  It  is  well  to  wash  out 
the  inside  of  the  crop  with  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic 
acid.  For  a  day  or  two  do  not  feed  solid  foods,  giving 
only  water  containing  a  grain  or  two  of  baking  soda. 
Give  soft  mashes  for  a  few  days  and  return  to  the  ordi- 
nary food  as  the  wound  heals.  If  taken  in  time  the 
operation  is  not  a  serious  one  and  fowls  usually  recover. 
Pigeons  rarely  survive  the  operation,  due  to  excessive 
tenderness  of  the  mucus  membrane. 

Diarrhea,  White — The  great  loss  resulting  form  white 
diarrhea  is  too  frequently  met  with.  Poultrymen 
throughout  the  country  claim  that  from  50  to  75  per 
cent  of  all  the  chickens  hatched  die  of  this  disease, 
hence  the  necessity  of  careful  study  that  the  real  cause 
may  be  reached  and  a  prevention  or  cure  found.  We 
choose  to  treat  it  as  a  separate  and  distinct  disease, 
although  many  regard  it  as  a  symptom  accompanying 
pneumonia,  congestion  of  the  lungs,  tubercular  troubles, 
inflammation  of  the  bowels  and  acute  indigestion. 

The  exact  cause  of  white  diarrhea  has  been  sought 
after  by  many  of  our  large  poultry  plants,  agricultural 
colleges  and  experiment  stations.  Supposedly  the  cause 
has  been  found  in  the  barometric  conditions  of  the  in- 
cubators, in  the  temperature  of  the  incubator  nurseries 
and  brooders,  in  the  organism  of  the  chick  itself,  un- 
absorbed  yolk,  lack  of  sufficient  grit  and  irregular  feed- 
ing.    Due  to  careful  investigation  made  by  George  B. 


468        Science  and  Art  of  Pour-TRv  Culture 

Morse  under  direction  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, it  was  found  that  white  diarrhea  persisted  where 
none  of  the  above  causes  were  to  be  found.  Air.  Morse 
describes  the  disease  as  an  intiamniation  of  varying  se- 
verity of  the  bhnd  intestinal  pouches  of  chickens,  caused 
by  the  presence  of  coccidium  tcnellum,  an  intracellular 
parasite  belonging  to  the  lowest  form  of  animal  life. 
This  parasitic  germ  is  frequently  found  in  the  intestines 
of  birds  of  all  ages,  but  mainly  in  chicks  between  two 
and  five  weeks  of  age. 

The  symptoms  are  dullness  and  weakness,  accompa- 
nied by  a  white,  pasty  discharge  that  mats  the  feathers 
and  tends  to  close  up  the  vent.  This  discharge  contains 
the  coccidium  tenellum  or  parasitic  germs  by  which  the 
disease  is  s.pread  to  other  birds  through  the  droppings 
or  unsanitary  surroundings. 

The  treatment  in  such  cases  is  of  no  practical  avail 
and  necessarily  resolves  itself  into  methods  of  prevention. 
Calomel,  one-tenth  grain,  or  a  dose  of  castor  oil  contain- 
ing a  few  drops  of  turpentine,  should  be  given.  Keep 
five  to  ten  grains  of  copperas  in  a  gallon  of  drinking 
water.  Following  the  cleansing  of  the  bowels  feed  rice- 
water  or  scalded  milk. 

In  getting  at  methods  of  prevention,  one  must  begin 
with  the  eggs  used  for  hatching.  They  should  be  from 
sound,  healthy  stock  and  thoroughly  cleaned  by  wip- 
ing in  a  five  per  cent  creolin  solution.  If  artificially  in- 
cubated, the  incubator  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected 
by  using  formaldehyde,  carbolic  acid  or  some  other 
germ  destroyer  and  then  expose  the  parts  to  the  sun.  The 
egg  tray  and  floors  to  the  nursery  should  be  taken  out 
and  sterilized.  The  brooders  should  be  treated  likewise. 
The  exposed  soil  should  be  sprayed  with  a  five  per  cent 
solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  creolin  and  spaded.     If  nat- 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      469 

ural  incubation  is  the  method,  the  hen  should  be  given 
calomel  or  castor  oil  occasionally  and  one-half  grain 
doses  of  sulphate  of  iron  (copperas).  Clean  the  eggs 
as  directed  above  placing  them  in  a  perfectly  clean  nest 
in  which  a  little  lime  is  sprinkled  from  time  to  time. 
After  hatching,  keep  brood  upon  thoroughly  sterilized 
ground.     Quoting  from  the  Government  report : 

White  diarrhea  of  cliicks,  although  forcing  itself  upon  the 
breeder's  attention  as  a  definite  disease,  should  really  be 
regarded  by  the  farmer  and  poultryman  as  but  one  mani- 
festation of  a  positive  poultry  pest.  It  is  the  evidence  ex- 
hibited among  the  w^eakest  of  the  flock  that  coccidiosis  has 
invaded  the  farm;  that  the  causative  agent,  coccidium 
tenellum,  has  located  itself  in  the  intestines  of  the  adult 
fowls.  He  must  remember  that  it  lodges  on  the  eggs  that 
leave  the  cloaca  of  infected  hens;  that  it  infects  the  drop- 
pings; that  the  roosts,  the  nests,  the  floors  of  the  houses 
and  scratching  pens,  contaminated  by  these  droppings,  are 
all  sources  of  further  invasion;  that  the  soil  of  the  run  or 
even  of  the  farm  where  the  fowls  range  at  liberty  is  an- 
other and  subtle  source  of  invasion,  holding  moisture  and 
warmth  of  sun  for  the  development  of  the  invading  sporozo- 
ites  within  the  permanent  cysts;  that  the  incubators  harbor 
the  parasite,  the  egg  tray  being  infected  by  the  soiled  eggs 
and  the  nurseries  by  the  droppings  of  the  infected  chicks; 
that  he  can  no  longer  hope  to  be  successful  in  raising 
turkeys;  that  if  he  lets  loose  his  pigeons  his  chances  for 
squab  raising  are  diminished;  that  "leg  weakness"  will 
sweep  away  his  ducklings;  that  the  intestines  thus  denuded 
of  their  epithelium  have  become  an  easy  port  of  entry  for 
the  bacterial  agents  of  virulent  infections;  and,  finally,  that 
in  spite  of  the  best  rules  for  egg  production  most  scrupously 
carried  out  the  almost  complete  suppression  of  absorption 
activities  will  diminish  his  egg  yield  to  a  minimum.  .-Xud 
when  he  realizes  that  this  organism  has  to  be  grown  in  the 
laboratorj'  in  solutions  so  strongly  antiseptic  as  to  kill  all 
bacteria,  the  poultryman  is  forced  to  appreciate  that  it  is  no 
mean  foe  with  which  he  has  to  battle. 


470        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Diphtheria — This  is  a  contagious  disease  character- 
ized by  the  presence  of  a  false  membrane  or  diseased 
growth  in  the  throat  and  inside  of  the  mouth,  resembhng 
raised  patches  of  pale,  yellowish  skin  which  may  in- 
vade the  entire  mouth.  In  simple  canker,  these  patches 
are  removed  without  any  inconvenience,  but  in  diph- 
theria they  are  removed  with  difficulty.  Birds  present 
a  sleepy,  droopy  appearance,  neck  may  be  somewhat 
stiff,  plumage  rough  and  the  throat,  after  the  second 
or  third  day,  shows  a  bright  red  color.  Tie  some  cot- 
ton on  the  end  of  a  stick  and  swab  out  the  mouth  and 
throat  with  hydrogen  peroxide.  Remove  any  growth 
that  comes  away  easily.  Then  blow  powdered  calcium 
sulphide  into  the  throat.  A  mild  solution  of  creolin  or 
carbolic  acid  is  good  for  clearing  the  nasal  passages  or 
other  affected  parts.  The  affected  birds  should  be 
placed  in  clean,  dry,  warm  and  well-ventilated  quar- 
ters and  fed  one  grain  of  calcium  sulphide  in  hot  mash 
each  day. 

The  disease  may  run  ten  or  fifteen  days  and  may  prove 
fatal  within  four  or  five  days.  It  is  to  be  dreaded  by 
all  poultry  men  as  it  leaves  a  flock  in  doubtful  condition 
for  breeding  purposes  and  impaired  to  some  extent  as 
layers. 

Dropsy — This  is  an  abdominal  disease  caused  by  a 
collection  of  watery  fluids  in  or  between  the  tissues  of 
this  region.  This  condition  is  shown  by  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  abdomen  until  it  nearly  or  quite  reaches 
the  ground  while  the  bird  is  standing.  If  examined  by 
a  slight  pressure  of  the  hand,  the  swelling  is  found  to 
be  soft  and  fluctuating.  It  gives  the  sensation  of  a 
filled  rubber  water  bottle.  Ordinarily,  it  is  not  wise 
nor  profitable  to  attempt  a  cure.  Some  improvement 
may  be  expected    from    tonics    and    careful    handling. 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      471 

Some  authorities  recommend  tapping  by  inserting-  a 
hollow  needle  and  letting  much  of  the  liquid  escape. 
This  is  not  advisable  unless  the  fowl  is  especially  val- 
uable. Birds  having  had  the  disease  should  not  be  used 
for  breeding  purposes. 

Dropsy  of  the  Feet — This  is  a  swollen  and  inflamed 
condition  of  the  legs  and  feet,  caused  mainly  by  over- 
feeding and  insufficient  exercise.  It  may  be  due  to 
frosting  or  the  result  of  any  disease  causing  a  sluggish 
circulation.  Give  plenty  of  green  food  and  induce  ex- 
ercise by  feeding  all  grains  in  deep  litter.  Keep  the 
bowels  open  with  castor  oil. 

Dropsy  of  the  Heart — This  is  not  uncommon  among 
fowls.  The  symptoms  are  easily  confused  with  other 
ailments  and  the  disease  is  not  recognized  till  after  death. 
The  bird  is  decidedly  weak  and  carries  the  head  thrown 
back,  with  labored  breathing  through  the  open  mouth. 
Give  bicarbonate  of  soda  in  the  drinking  water. 

Dysentery — Dysentery  is  the  direct  result  of  careless- 
ness in  handling  stock.  Filthy  surroundings,  lack  of 
care  in  the  introduction  of  infected  birds,  failure  to 
keep  all  premises  properly  disinfected  or  a  neglected 
case  of  diarrhea  are  among  the  principal  causes  of  the 
trouble. 

The  disease  is  characterized  by  a  looseness  of  the 
bowels,  the  discharge  being  thin  and  watery  and  often 
showing  a  trace  of  blood.  Birds  soon  grow  weak,  with 
failure  of  appetite. 

All  sick  or  suspected  birds  should  be  sent  to  the  hos- 
pital at  once.  Give  a  tablespoonful  of  sweet  oil  or  Ep- 
som salts  as  a  laxative  to  free  the  bowel  of  any  iritat- 
ing  matter  that  may  be  in  the  intestinal  tract.  Do  not 
feed  mashes  but  keep  plenty  of  rice-water  and  scalded 
milk  before  the  patient.     In  severe  cases,  give  five  to 


472        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

ten  drops  of  laudanum  to  each  bird.  Keep  all  feed  and 
drinking  receptacles  cleaned  and  disinfected. 

Eczema — This  is  a  noncontagious  skin  disease.  It 
may  attack  any  part  of  the  bird  but  usually  appears 
upon  the  wattles.  Fine  white  points  appear,  covered 
by  a  thin  skin.  These  points  multiply  till  the  skin 
bursts,  allowing  the  liquid  to  escape,  and  drying  upon 
the  surface  forms  a  rough  scurvy.  The  disease  is  not 
transmitted  from  bird  to  bird,  but  is  caused  by  the  over- 
feeding of  foods  containing  heavy  quantities  of  nitro- 
gen. The  birds  present  a  tired  appearance  with  a  loss 
of  appetite. 

Improve  the  diet  by  feeding  a  mash  containing  a  lib- 
eral amount  of  cut  clover  and  vegetables.  Feed  no  meat. 
Give  a  pill  each  day  composed  of  citrate  of  iron  and 
quinine,  equal  parts,  for  clearing  up  the  system.  Use 
some  healing  ointment  on  the  affected  parts.  The  pa- 
tient should  be  given  plenty  of  exercise. 

Egg-bound — A  condition  common  among  the  heavy 
varieties  of  fowls  and  most  prevalent  during  the  late 
winter  laying  season.  The  hen  will  be  noticed  making 
frequent  visits  to  the  nest  but  without  dropping  an  egg. 
She  will  be  uneasy  and  evidence  pain. 

Many  cases  during  the  early  stages  may  be  relieved 
by  injections  of  sweet  oil.  If  this  does  not  accomplish 
the  desired-  results  insert  oiled  finger  and  break  the  Qgg 
if  possible  then  removing  all  the  contents.  Soaking 
the  vent  in  warm  water  may  cause  enough  relaxation 
to  pass  the  tgg.  If  tgg  cannot  be  induced  to  pass  from 
external  treatments,  give  twenty  drops  of  extract  of  ergot 
in  some  warm  water.  Do  not  feed  any  fat-producing 
foods  for  several  weeks,  giving  plenty  of  clover  and  veg- 
etables.    Give  a  good  tonic. 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      473 

Enteritis — A  disease  common  to  all  domesticated 
fowls,  but  growing  stock  and  molting  fowls  are  most 
apt  to  enteritis  attacks.  The  disease  is  characterized  by 
its  long  duration  and  in  this  way  can  be  distinguished 
from  cholera. 

The  germs  that  set  up  the  inflammation  in  the  intes- 
tinal tract  are  introduced  by  means  of  contaminated 
foods  or  drinking  water.  They  soon  multiply  and  set 
up  the  inflammation  that  results  in  poisoning  the  fowl, 
ulceration  and  necrosis  of  the  tissues  with  the  infection 
of  the  liver  and  other  vital  organs.  It  may  be  caused 
by  the  feeding  of  decomposed  grain  or  vegetables  or 
by  bringing  sick  birds  upon  the  place. 

The  symptoms  develop  rapidly.  There  is  excessive 
thirst  but  no  appetite.  Birds  stand  with  back  rounded, 
plumage  erect,  head  drawn  close  to  body  with  eyes  closed 
and  wings  drooping.  The  comb  and  wattles  are  pale.  Ex- 
crements are  solid  at  first  and  of  a  greenish  color,  but 
later  may  be  soft,  liquid  and  bluish  green. 

Where  enteritis  is  known  to  be  prevalent,  the  first 
thing  is  a  thorough  disinfection  of  the  premises  with 
a  five  per  cent  solution  of  creolin  or  carbolic  acid  fol- 
lowed by  a  lime  wash.  To  cleanse  the  bowels,  give  a 
tablespoonful  of  olive  oil  at  a  dose,  three  times  daily, 
or  castor  oil  once  each  day.  To  check  the  diarrhea,  give 
three  grains  sub-nitrate  of  bismuth,  one  grain  powdered 
cinnamon  or  cloves  mixed  with  food  or  given  in  pills. 
Follow  this  with  a  tonic.  The  food  should  be  nutri- 
tious, easily  digested  and  not  too  wet.  Feed  sparingly 
until  the  diarrhea  is  checked  or  some  improvement  is 
seen. 

Epilepsy — Epilepsy  or  fits  may  be  caused  from  the 
pressure  of  a  tumor  upon  the  brain  or  from  internal 
parasites. 


474        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

The  characteristic  symptoms  are  unconsciousness 
and  convulsive  movements  of  the  body.  The  victim 
lies  upon  its  back  with  the  head  thrown  back  and  the 
leg-s  spread.  Eyes  rolled  to  back  part  of  the  head,  open- 
ing and  closing  alternately  with  the  bill.  After  the  at- 
tack, the  bird  may  go  about  as  usual.  Should  the  trouble 
be  due  to  worms,  remove  the  cause.  Otherwise,  but 
little  can  be  done  and  the  bird  should  be  killed  unless 
especially  valuable. 

Fish-skill  Disease — This  is  very  similar  to  scaly  leg 
in  appearance,  only  it  is  not  transmitted  from  one  bird  to 
another,  although  some  strains  seem  more  susceptible 
to  the  trouble  than  others.  There  seems  to  be  an  in- 
sufficient supply  of  oil  in  the  skin  of  the  legs  and  toes, 
causing  them  to  become  dry  and  scaly.  The  irritation 
resulting  causes  fowl  to  pick  and  scratch  the  parts. 

Keep  the  legs  and  toes  well  lubricated  with  car- 
bolated  vaseline.  Changing  the  rations  seems  to  pro- 
duce no  decided  effect  in  the  disease. 

Frostbite — Birds  having  tall,  thin  combs  are  apt  to 
be  frozen  during  severe  weather.  The  healthier  the 
bird  and  the  better  the  house,  the  less  danger  of  freez- 
ing. The  frozen  part  turns  dark  and  resembles  black 
rot,  excepting  the  fowl  retains  its  appetite  and  vigor. 

If  taken  in  time  the  frozen  part  can  be  saved  by 
thawing  out  gradually  with  snow.  Keep  fowl  in  a  cool 
room.     Apply  witch  hazel  or  vaseline  for  a  few  days. 

Gapes — Gapes  is  a  disease  common  to  chicks  from 
two  to  six  weeks  old  and  seems  to  be  most  prevalent 
in  the  dry,  sandy  sections  of  our  country. 

The  disease  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  small,  red 
parasitic  worms  which  are  attached  to  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  windpipe,  causing  it  to  become  inflamed 
and  often  resulting  in  the  death  of  young  chicks.     These 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      475 

wonns  obstruct  the  passage  of  air  to  and  from  the  lungs, 
thus  causuig  the  characteristic  gasping  symptoms.  The 
infection  is  caused  by  eating  the  adult  worms  contain- 
ing the  eggs  or  by  taking  the  embryos  in  the  food  or 
drink.  The  common  earth  worm  contain  these  gape 
embryos. 

The  early  symptom  is  a  little  hacking  cough,  as  if  to 
eject  some  foreign  substance  from  the  windpipe.  The 
breathing  is  difficult  and  swallowing  is  accompanied 
with  coughing.  AIucus  flows  freely  from  the  mouth  and 
nostrils  and  may  become  so  plentiful  as  to  be  drawn  into 
the  air  passages,  resulting  in  the  death  of  the  fowl. 

Many  good  authorities  recommend  removing  the 
worms  by  means  of  a  horse  hair  or  a  feather  dipped  in 
kerosene,  but  the  trachea  is  so  small  and  so  easily  in- 
jured that  it  is  impossible  to  dislodge  and  remove  all 
the  worms  by  such  means. 

One  of  the  most  common  and  satisfactor>-  treatments 
is  the  use  of  lime  dust.  Sift  it  into  a  barrel  containing 
the  diseased  fowls  and  the  irritation  from  the  dust  will 
cause  sneezing  and  the  dislodging  of  the  worms.  Do 
not  use  too  much  lime  and  admit  plenty  of  air.  The 
same  end  can  be  attained  by  burning  a  small  amount 
of  sulphur,  or  the  vapor  from  turpentine  or  creosote. 

One  authority  recommends  rubbing  the  neck  from  time 
to  time  with  three  parts  lard  or  vaseline  containing 
one  part  turpentine.  This  treatment  should  begin  early, 
however,  as  it  does  but  little  good  in  the  last  stages  of 
the  disease.  Pure  turpentine  will  very  quickly  kill  a 
chick  if  applied  to  the  trachea.  Separate  the  sick  birds 
from  the  well  ones  and  thoroughly  spade  all  runs  and 
yards,  and  disinfect  all  yards,  runs  and  equipment  with 
a  five  per  cent  carbolic  acid  solution.  Put  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  creolin  to  a  gallon  of  drinking  water.    Give  a  cam- 


476        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

phor  pill  or  two  grains  of  sulphur  twice  daily.  One  is 
never  sure  of  gapes  unless  the  worms  are  in  evidence 
and  this  fact  should  be  known  before  treatment  is  un- 
dertaken. 

A  tablespoonful  of  antimony  sulphate  or  black  an- 
timony sprinkled  in  drinking  water  or  fed  in  mash  once 
a  day  for  several  days  will  destroy  the  eggs  of  the  gape 
worm  and  thereby  prevent  the  reproduction  of  the  par- 
asite. It  will  not  injure  young  poultry  as  they  will  eat 
sparingly  of  it  and  it  should  be  removed  as  soon  as 
they  have  discovered  its  disagreeable  taste,  so  as  not 
to  discourage  future  eating.  Keep  it  from  all  breeding 
stock. 

Gastritis — The  so-called  fowl  stomach  is  a  compara- 
tively small  organ  or  enlargement  of  the  oesophagus 
between  the  crop  and  gizzard.  Inflammation  of  this  or- 
gan is  not  uncommon  and  accompanies  any  derange- 
ment of  the  crop.  Anything  that  hinders  perfect  di- 
gestion is  a  cause  for  the  trouble.  Lack  of  grit,  excess 
of  food,  insufficient  exercise,  or  irritation  caused  by 
swallowing  small  nails,  pins  or  sharp  substances  may 
set  up  the  irritation.  The  taking  of  poisons,  such  as 
are  frequently  used  for  rats  and  mice,  or  swallowing 
match  heads,  will  cause  the  trouble.  The  trouble  is  in- 
dicated by  a  loss  of  appetite,  quickened  respiration,  and 
excessive  thirst.  Plumage  stands  erect  and  wings 
droopy.  Diarrhea  may  appear  one  day  and  constipation 
the  next.     In  serious  cases  prostration  follows. 

Get  at  the  cause  early  and  remove  it.  Give  easily  di- 
gested foods,  feeding  in  small  quantities  and  regularly. 
Feed  mostly  cooked  foods  and  some  meat,  giving  bar- 
ley-water or  milk  for  drink.  If  constipated,  purge  with 
Epsom  salts  or  castor  oil.  Use  twenty  grains  of  soda 
to  the  quart  of  drinking  water.     If  the  disease  is  due 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      477 

to  poisoning,  it  usually  proves  fatal  before  any  remedy 
can  be  applied. 

Going  Light — This  disease  is  characterized  by  loss  of 
flesh  and  has  been  termed  "  going  light."  The  bird  may 
have  excessive  appetite  and  still  continue  to  lose  flesh. 
The  comb  and  wattles  turn  pale  and  gradually  the  bird 
shows  decided  emaciation.  It  may  be  due  to  a  poorly 
balanced  ration,  disorders  of  the  intestinal  tract,  internal 
parasites,  etc. 

Check  this  w^asting  by  giving  three  grains  of  nitrate 
of  bismuth  and  one  grain  powdered  cinnamon  or  cloves 
twice  daily.  Follow  this  with  a  tonic  of  thirty  grains 
each  of  powdered  fennel  and  anise  and  fifteen  grains 
of  powdered  sulphate  of  iron  mixed  together  and  add- 
ed to  a  mash  of  wheat  middlings  and  boiled  milk.  If 
possible,  detect  the  cause  of  the  trouble  and  check  it. 

Indigestion — As  with  the  human  family,  indigestion 
means  sickness.  It  is  usually  the  first  step  towards  a 
deranged  system.  It  may  be  the  result  of  naturally 
weak  organs  but  more  apt  to  be  the  result  of  overfeed- 
ing a  poorly  balanced  ration.  In  a  great  many  cases, 
we  feel  the  cause  is  due  entirely  to  an  insufficient  sup- 
ply of  grit. 

The  heavy  varieties  of  fowls  are  more  susceptible  to 
derangements  of  the  digestive  organs,  hence  the  neces- 
sity of  keeping  such  supplied  with  an  abundance  of 
clean  litter  to  induce  exercise.  Common  sense  in  feed- 
ing and  caring  for  fowls  has  much  to  do  in  warding  off 
cases  of  indigestion.  Give  the  fowl  a  clean,  well-venti- 
iated  home,  plenty  of  sunshine  and  fresh  air.  together 
with  pure,  fresh  water  in  free-from-germ  drinking  re- 
ceptacles and  cases  of  this  kind  will  rarely  if  ever  ap- 
pear. Regulate  the  diet  by  cutting  down  on  the  grain 
and  meat  ration  and  supplying  cut  clover  and  vegetables. 


478        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Give  for  one  week  one  teaspoonful  of  sulphate  of 
magnesia  to  a  quart  of  drinking-  water  and  follow  with 
one  eighth  grain  of  strychnine  to  a  pint  of  water.  Xux 
vomica,  one  drop  every  three  hours,  usually  corrects 
troubles  of  this  nature.  Indigestion,  if  not  cared  for, 
is  followed  by  liver  troubles,  "  Going  light  "  and  death. 

Inflaniniation  of  Oviduct — This  condition  may  result 
from  an  egg-bound  condition  or  may  be  due  to  bad  effects 
of  over-stimulating  egg-producing  foods.  The  Qgg  pas- 
sage is  a  very  sensitive  organ  and  too  frequent  laying 
of  too  large  eggs  or  the  breaking  or  holding  back  of 
an  tgg  are  sufficient  causes  to  produce  the  inflammation. 

The  symptoms  are  noticeable  early,  there  being  con- 
stant straining  as  if  to  expel  an  tgg.  The  vent  is  hot, 
red  and  in  active  motion.  Exhaustion  soon  follows, 
the  comb  and  wattles  turn  purple  and  death  soon  re- 
sults. 

If  treatment  is  to  be  effective,  it  must  begin  earlv. 
Unless  the  cause  can  be  removed,  there  is  no  need  of 
attempting  a  cure.  Keep  the  hen  quiet.  Grease  and 
insert  a  small  finger  into  the  vent  and  either  remove  or 
break  the  egg,  if  a  retained  egg  is  thought  the  cause 
of  the  trouble.  If  successful  in  this,  separate  bird  from 
the  flock  and  feed  on  cut  clover  and  well-cooked  bran. 
Give  a  small  drop  of  aconite  and  move  bowels  by  use 
of  Epsom  salts  or  castor  oil. 

Inflammation  of  the  Vent — The  first  symptom  of  this 
trouble  is  frequent  passing  of  excrement.  This  mav  be 
attempted  when  the  cloaca  is  entirely  empty,  due  to  an 
irritation  causing  a  fullness  and  produces  the  muscu- 
lar contraction.  At  such  times  the  mucous  membrane 
is  red,  dry,  swollen  and  hot.  Later,  a  thin,  wliite,  of- 
fensive discharge  makes  its  appearance,  collecting  about 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      479 

the  vent  on  the  feathers  and  skin,  obstructing  the  vent 
and  setting  up  an  inflammation. 

Clean  all  the  parts  with  a  weak  solution  of  cre- 
olin  and  water,  then  apply  an  ointment  made  from 
one  part  finely  powdered  iodoform  to  twenty  parts  pure 
vaseline  at  the  same  time  working  same  into  the  vent. 
Feed  the  patient  on  stale  bread  crumbs  and  sweet  milk. 
For  drinking  water  use  one  teaspoonful  of  nitre  to  a 
pint  of  drinking  water  and  allow  no  other  drink.  The 
disease  is  transmitted  by  copulation. 

Jaundice — This  is  a  disease  common  among  corn-fed 
fowls.  It  is  due  to  an  over-production  of  bile  and  en- 
largement of  the  gall  bladder  and,  due  to  the  oversup- 
ply,  is  absorbed  by  the  blood  vessels  and  carried  through- 
out the  whole  system,  giving  the  yellowish  color  to  the 
skin,  comb  and  wattles.  Very  frequently,  the  disease 
is  not  suspected  till  after  death.  Give  one  grain  of 
aloes  and  make  a  complete  change  in  the  food,  giving 
a  great  variety. 

Leg  JVeak)iess — This  is  a  disease  especially  common 
among  chicks  brooded  indoors  during  the  winter  months. 
It  is  more  often  seen  among  half-grown  birds  and  in  heavy 
varieties  instead  of  the  light.  Cockerels  are  more  sus- 
ceptible than  pullets.  Young  brooder  chicks  are  very 
apt  to  be  troubled  with  leg  weakness  when  the  heat  is 
unevenly  distributed  or  where  the  bottom  heat  is  too 
great. 

The  first  evidences  of  the  disease  are  scarcely  notice- 
able except  to  the  interested  and  careful  observer.  The 
movements  are  unsteady  at  the  first  and  in  a  short  time 
the  bird  may  be  found  sitting  while  eating.  Even  at  this 
stage,  the  victim  shows  no  constitutional  derangement 
but  as  time  passes  he  presents  a  dififerent  appearance. 
He  becomes   sluggish  in  movement,  less   apt  to  assert 


480        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

his  rights  in  securing  his  share  of  food,  and  becomes 
thin  and  lousy. 

Place  all  the  weak  birds  to  themselves  and  avoid 
over-stimulating  foods.  Give  plenty  of  cut  clover  and 
do  not  feed  corn  or  corn  meal.  Green  peas  or  beans 
are  helpful  in  building  up  the  bird.  Bathe  the  legs  with 
tincture  of  arnica.  Give  some  good  tonic.  Do  not  con- 
fuse this  disease  with  rheumatism.  The  joints  will  be 
swollen  in  the  latter  case. 

L'unbcr  Xcck — Limber  neck  occurs  where  chicks 
have  eaten  quantities  of  decomposed  iiesh  or  other  in- 
digestible or  poisonous  matter  or  during  excessively  hot 
weather.  It  is  characterized  by  a  limp  condition  of  the 
neck  to  an  extent  that  all  control  of  the  neck  muscles 
is  lost  and  the  head  rests  upon  the  ground.  It  is  re- 
garded by  some  as  a  symptom  of  several  other  diseases. 

Dissolve  a  teaspoonful  of  hypo-sulphite  of  soda  in  a 
half-cup  of  water  and  give  a  teaspoonful  every  three 
hours.  One  authority  suggests  giving  a  small  piece  of 
asafoetida  in  the  gum  form.  Again,  mix  one  to  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  turpentine  with  an  equal  amount  of 
sweet  oil  and  give  through  a  rubber  tube.  In  the  case 
of  young  chicks,  give  the  oil  and  turpentine  by  mixing 
into  pills.  Another  simple  remedy  is  made  by  taking 
equal  parts  of  pure  lard,  ginger,  mustard  and  cayenne 
pepper  and  making  small  pills  to  be  taken  every  three 
hours. 

Paralysis — The  nature  of  this  disease,  like  apoplexy, 
is  an  overflow  of  blood  to  the  brain.  The  preliminary 
symptoms  are  giddiness  and  staggering.  Should  uncon- 
sciousness follow,  the  trouble  is,  no  doubt,  apoplexy, 
but  if  a  blood  vessel  burst  it  is  paralysis,  and  death  is 
liable  to  result. 

Apply  cold  water  to  the  head,  driving  the  blood  from 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      481 

the  brain,  or  tap  a  vein  of  the  neck  or  under  the  wing 
to  reduce  the  pressure.  If  there  is  any  fever,  give 
some    aconite.      Regulate    the    bowels    with    castor    oil. 

Peritonitis — This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  delicate 
membranous  lining  surrounding  the  delicate  organs  in 
the  abdominal  cavity  and  is  regarded  as  a  serious  and 
fatal  disease.  The  inflammation  may  be  due  to  a  bruise, 
a  ruptured  intestine  or  blood  vessel  of  the  oviduct  or 
it  may  be  the  result  of  tuberculosis.  Peritonitis  fre- 
quently results  in  cases  of  caponizing.  The  symptoms 
are  similar  to  other  troubles,  there  being  difficult  breath- 
ing and  loss  of  appetite,  together  with  extreme  tender- 
ness to  the  touch  over  the  abdomen.  The  bird  is  uneasy 
and  may  fall  to  the  ground  with  legs  drawn  close  to  the 
body. 

It  is  rare  that  medical  treatment  in  such  cases  is  of 
any  use.  The  suffering  may  be  relieved  by  giving  opium. 
Give  liquid  foods  such  as  beef  juice  and  milk, 

Pip — Pip  is  not  a  disease  but  rather  a  symptom  of 
certain  inflammatory  conditions  of  the  respiratory  organs 
appearing  in  such  diseases  as  roup,  catarrh  and  bron- 
chitis, where  the  nasal  passages  become  clogged  and 
the  chick  breathes  through  its  mouth,  causing  the  tongue 
to  become  parched  and  scaly,  especially  about  the  tip. 

Any  attempt  at  removing  this  crusted  portion  causes 
inflammation. 

Some  resort  to  the  cruel  practice  of  clipping  the 
end  of  the  tongue,  but  this  is  unnecessary  as  the 
application  of  equal  parts  of  glycerin  and  water  win 
soften  the  scale  and  cause  it  to  disappear.  If  there  be 
any  inflammation,  bathe  with  fifteen  grains  of  boric 
acid  to  an  ounce  of  water.  This  condition  is  not  dan- 
gerous except  as  it  is  associated  with  diseases  of  a 
serious  nature. 


482        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

Pneumonia — Pneumonia  is  an  acute,  infectious,  croupy 
inflammation  of  the  air  cells  of  the  lungs.  It  js  a  ser- 
ious disease  and  is  generally  regarded  as  being  con- 
tagious. It  is  not  so  common  among  birds  as  animals 
and  some  authorities  claim  that  typical  pneumonia  is 
not  found  among  birds.  The  symptoms  and  effects 
are  the  same  in  both  cases,  however.  Pneumonia  fol- 
lows very  closely  congestion  of  the  lungs.  The  dis- 
charge from  the  blood  vessels  of  the  lungs  hardens,  ob- 
structing the  intricate  passages,  excluding  the  air  and 
rendering  the  lung  useless  for  respiration.  Pneumonia 
may  attack  the  bronchial  tubes  as  well  as  the  lung  tis- 
sue. Over-cared  for  fowls  or  where  they  are  housed 
in  too  close  quarters,  even  in  severe  weather,  are  made 
the  more  susceptible  to  any  lung  derangements.  The 
position  the  bird  assumes  in  its  effort  to  breathe  is  one 
of  the  main  symptoms  of  the  disease.  It  is  a  half-squat- 
ting, half-standing  position,  with  wings  drooping  and 
held  away  from  the  body.  The  breathing  is  labored 
and  by  placing  ear  to  the  chest  a  snapping  or  crack- 
ling sound  may  be  heard.  In  young  stock  the  symp- 
toms are  not  so  marked  and  there  seems  to  be  no  sure 
sign  of  the  disease. 

The  disease  is  very  rapid  and  fatal,  and  the  treat- 
ment should  be  prompt  and  active.  Remove  birds  to 
moist,  warm  quarters  at  a  temperature  ranging  about 
65  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Should  fowls  be  too  cold,  cover 
with  a  blanket,  leaving  head  exposed  for  fresh  air.  One 
drop  of  aconite  every  two  hours  is  one  of  the  best  rem- 
edies. Another  authority  (Salmon)  recommends  flax- 
seed tea,  made  by  taking  a  pint  of  boiling  water  to  an 
ounce  of  the  seed  and  steeping  for  a  few  hours,  using 
care  to  not  allow  it  to  boil.  Strain  out  the  seeds  and  al- 
low fowls  to  drink  the  liquid.    If  the  bird  will  not  drink 


\'iCES,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      483 

it  may  be  given  from  a  spoon  or  through  a  glass  tube. 
It  is  not  best  to  give  any  quinine.  Give  no  sohd  foods 
but  allow  milk  and  raw  egg  for  some  time.  As  the 
bird  regains  strength,  change  to  the  normal  temper- 
ature and  food  but  do  not  return  to  the  flock  until  fully 
recovered.  ]\Iany  regard  the  open-front  type  of  build- 
ings and  scratching  sheds  as  strong  factors  in  the  pre- 
vention of  pneumonia. 

Rheumatism — All  species  of  fowls  are  subject  to 
rheumatic  tendencies.  It  is  most  common  among  old 
fowls.  However,  brooder  chicks  are  very  susceptible 
if  exposed  to  damp  quarters  or  cool  brooders.  As 
rheumatism  is  usually  caused  by  exposure  to  dampness, 
it  should  be  sufficient  warning  for  improvement  in  ven- 
tilation and  drainage  of  the  poultry-  quarters.  Careful 
attention  given  to  these  matters,  the  disease  may  be 
avoided  or  any  tendencies  checked. 

The  disease  attacks  all  parts  of  the  body,  but  the 
most  prominent  sxniptoms  are  located  in  the  legs  and 
feet.  There  is  a  drawing  up  of  the  legs  and  toes,  and 
any  attempt  at  straightening  them  causes  pain.  There 
may  be  a  slight  rise  in  temperature. 

House  rheumatic  patients  in  clean,  dr>-,  sunny  quarters 
and  give  a  dose  of  epsom  salts  to  free  the  bowels.  Fol- 
low this  with  common  soda  in  the  drinking  water.  Feed 
almost  exclusively  on  green  foods.  Bathe  the  swollen 
parts  with  witch  hazel,  alcohol  or  arnica. 

Roup — Roup  is  the  most  common  disease  in  the  poul- 
try yard  as  well  as  the  most  dreaded.  It  is  a  catarrhal 
affection  of  the  air  passages  and  is  to  the  fowl  what 
croup  or  the  inflammation  of  the  lungs  and  trachea 
is  to  the  child.  Two-thirds  of  the  supposed  cases  of 
roup    are    simply    the    symptoms    leading  up  to  it  and 


484        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

beginners,  particularly,  are  apt  to  become  confused  and 
alarmed  wben  tbere  is  no  need  of  it. 

Genuine  roup,  however,  is  deadly  and  is  character- 
ized by  the  roup  smell.  This  odor  is  peculiar  to  the 
disease  and  is  very  lasting  and  penetrating  and  when 
once  recognized  there  is  but  little  danger  of  confusing 
any  other  disease  with  roup.  Old  and  run-down  fowls 
seem  most  liable,  but  all  are  subject  to  it.  Roup  is  a 
germ  disease  and  hence  contagious  and  large  num- 
bers have  been  lost  from  the  thoughtless  introduction 
of  a  roupy  bird  into  a  healthy  flock. 

It  is  doubtful  if  ever  a  case  of  roup  has  been  perma- 
nently cured.  It  is  possible  that  the  bird  apparently  re- 
covered but  the  truth  remains  that  when  roup  once 
takes  hold  of  a  bird  it  will  forever  contain  the  germs 
of  the  disease.  Hens  are  not  fit  for  breeding  after 
having  had  roup  as  the  chicks  will  be  weak  and  very 
susceptible  to  the  disease.  The  eggs  are  good  for  the 
table,  however. 

Authorities  dififer  as  to  the  nature  and  exact  cause  of 
roup.  It  is  due  to  a  microscopic  germ  or  parasite  that 
multiplies  and  develops  within  the  mucus  membrane 
of  birds.  This  germ  finds  good  ground  for  develop- 
ment in  birds  affected  with  severe  cold,  or  catarrh.  The 
cold  or  catarrh  may  prove  fatal,  but  it  is  necessary  for 
the  roup  germ  to  be  introduced  before  having  a  case 
of  roup. 

The  germs  are  blown  about,  getting  into  the  eyes,  nos- 
trils and  beak,  thus  setting  up  the  irritation  that  devel- 
ops roup.  One  authority  openly  asserts  that  filth  and 
sudden  variations  in  temperature  are  the  two  main 
causes  of  the  diseases  resulting  in  roup.  Persistent  in- 
breeding will  tend  to  weaken  a  flock  and  make  it  sus- 
ceptible to  diseases  of  this  character. 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      485 

The  symptoms  develop  from  two  to  five  days  follow- 
ing infection  and  at  first  are  the  same  as  catarrh.  There 
is  a  severe  cold  accompanied  by  a  dryness  and  inflamma- 
tion of  the  mouth  and  throat,  followed  by  a  thin  dis- 
charge from  the  nose,  mouth  and  eyes.  The  eyes  are 
bulging  and  remain  closed  a  part  of  the  time.  The  bird 
presents  a  most  miserable  appearance.  One  author 
says:  "  Cold  in  the  head,  swollen  and  watery  eyes,  sore 
throat,  rapid  breathing,  general  depression,  intense 
thirst — that  is  roup."  A  false  membrane  forms  in  the 
nose  and  mouth,  causing  the  difficult  breathing  and  swal- 
lowing. By  visiting  the  perches  at  night,  it  is  easy  to 
detect  any  obstructed  breathing.  Birds  should  be  exam- 
ined under  the  wings  mornings  for  the  presence  of  any 
discharge  from  the  nostrils  during  the  night.  The  "  roup 
smell  "  is  the  surest  evidence  of  the  disease. 

The  most  satisfactory  remedy  for  a  well-developed 
case  of  genuine  roup  is  a  sharp  axe  and  a  block  of 
wood.  The  secret  of  success  in  handling  roup  is  its 
prevention  or  the  successful  treating  of  those  diseases 
that  are  the  breeding  places  of  the  roup  germs.  If  roup 
is  suspected,  keep  finely  chopped  onions  containing 
plenty  of  red  pepper  constantly  before  the  fowls.  Give 
frequent  doses  of  castor  oil,  a  teaspoonful  at  a  time, 
and  wash  out  mouth  with  castile  soap  and  water,  fre- 
quently blowing  powdered  borax  into  mouth  and  throat. 
Yet  roup  responds  to  treatment  if  taken  in  time.  If 
a  bird  has  watery  eyes  and  is  sneezing  and  discharging 
at  the  nose,  spray  all  the  surfaces  that  can  be  reached 
with  a  solution  of  witch  hazel  four  tablespoonfuls,  car- 
bolic acid  three  drops  and  a  small  amount  of  water,  giv- 
ing a  quinine  pill  each  night  for  two  or  three  nights. 
Permanganate  of  potassium  kept  on  hand  and  properly 
used  is  an  excellent  preventive.     To  one  pint  of  warm 


486        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

water  add  one  five-grain  powder  of  permanganate  of 
potassium,  one  two-grain  powder  of  sulphate  of  quinine 
and  ten  drops  of  aconite.  When  well  mixed,  wash  the 
head  of  the  fowl,  using  a  syringe  for  injecting  the  mix- 
ture into  the  throat  and  air  passages,  A  teaspoonful 
may  be  given  every  hour.  The  above  remedy  has  saved 
hundreds  of  severe  cases.  In  extremely  severe  cases, 
double  the  dose  and,  should  no  improvement  follow, 
use  the  block  and  hatchet.  Care  should  be  exercised 
in  using  the  aconite  as  it  is  a  deadly  poison. 

If  pus  forms  in  any  of  the  swellings  of  the  head,  it 
should  be  removed  and  the  sore  treated  with  a  two  per 
cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid.  Should  there  be  any 
canker  fomiation,  swab  out  the  mouth  and  throat  with 
a  chlorate  of  potash  solution  followed  by  blowing  pow- 
dered borax  into  these  parts.  Should  the  birds  show 
signs  of  improvement,  give  tincture  of  iron  or  some 
other  good  tonic.  Almost  every  one  has  a  roup  cure, 
but  no  known  remedy  will  cure  all  cases.  In  selecting 
any  of  the  remedies  mentioned,  it  is  well  to  use  the  mild- 
er ones  first,  resorting  to  severer  treatment  only  in  case 
of  necessity. 

Burn  all  dead  fowls.  The  diet  should  be  light  and  all 
mashes  contain  one-third  cut  clover.  The  quarters 
should  be  dry,  sunny,  well-ventilated  and  kept  at  an 
even  temperature.  Roup  is  a  hard  disease  to  stamp  out 
when  once  introduced.  The  infectious  matter  from  the 
discharge  of  the  mucus  surfaces  seems  to  retain  the 
germ  life  for  months.  Drinking  receptacles,  feed  pans 
and  feeding  grounds  readily  hold  the  germs  of  the  dis- 
eased birds.  The  sick  birds  under  treatment,  should  al- 
ways be  closely  quarantined  apart  from  the  rest  of  the 
flock.     This  applies   to  all   contagious  diseases  as  well. 

Sca!y-lcg  or  Scabies — This    disease    is    very    closely 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      487 

identified  with  fish-scale,  but  the  causes  are  entirely 
difi:erent.  Scaly-leg  is  caused  by  a  small  insect  or  par- 
asite that  burrows  underneath  the  scale  on  the  legs  and 
is  highly  contagious,  while  fish-scale  is  a  constitutional 
disease.  It  seems  to  be  most  prevalent  among  the  heav- 
ier breeds,  but  all  are  subject  to  it.  The  disease  may 
be  transmitted  from  another  bird  or  from  an  infected 
house  or  brooder.  Prompt  and  active  measures  should 
be  taken  to  prevent  its  spreading.  It  usually  begins 
between  the  toes  and  spreads  slowly  until  it  may  cover 
the  whole  leg.  The  scales  thicken  and  raise  slowly, 
forming  unsightly  bunches  if  not  attended  to.  In  severe 
cases  the  joints  become  afifected  and  the  toes  may  be 
detached.  Birds  arc  apt  to  peck  and  scratch  these  af- 
fected parts,  causing  raw  sores. 

To  properly  treat  this  offensive  disease,  the  legs  should 
be  soaked  in  soapy  water  until  these  bunches  soften 
and  can  be  removed.  Follow  this  by  dipping  in  Balsam 
of  Peru  or  apply  a  salve  made  from  lard  and  sulphur. 
Some  recommend  dipping  in  kerosene  by  placing  same 
in  a  bucket  of  water.  The  oil  comes  to  the  top  and 
a  sufficient  amount  adheres  as  the  legs  are  drawn 
through.  One  can  do  much  towards  avoiding  this 
trouble  by  keeping  careful  watch  of  the  flock  and  check- 
ing any  early  tendency  along  this  line.  Do  not  fail  to 
thoroughly  paint  the  roosts  with  kerosene  or  some  other 
good  insecticide. 

Tuberculosis — Tuberculosis  is  very  closely  allied  to 
consumption  but  is  more  rapid  and  intense.  There  is 
but  one  way  to  make  a  satisfactory  diagnosis  and  that 
is  by  a  microscopic  examination  of  the  excrement  for 
the  presence  of  the  bacillus  or  disease  germs  that  pro- 
duce tuberculosis.  The  bacillus  of  tuberculosis  in  birds 
resembles  that  of  man  but  is  larger  and  more  vigorous. 


488        Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

The  disease  is  most  common  in  the  European  countries 
and  is  coming  to  be  quite  prevalent  in  our  own  coun- 
try. It  attacks  fowls,  pigeons,  pheasants,  turkeys  and 
peacocks  in  an  epidemic  form. 

The  symptoms  in  tuberculosis  are  easily  confused 
with  those  of  many  other  diseases.  There  is  a  decided 
rise  in  the  temperature  but  a  constant  decrease  in  weight 
and  wasting  of  the  muscles.  The  comb  loses  its  color, 
and  a  drowsiness  takes  hold  of  the  fowl.  A  constant  di- 
arrhea is  present  and  continues  until  death.  The  above 
symptoms  are  those  observed  when  the  disease  attacks 
the  inner  organs.  It  may  attack  the  joints  and  bones 
and  be  evidenced  by  lameness,  swelling  of  the  joints 
or  the  formation  of  pus  in  ulcers  containing  the  dis- 
ease germs. 

Treatment  is  of  no  avail  in  this  disease.  It  is  a  safe 
rule  to  quarantine  every  bird  showing  any  symptom 
tending  toward  tuberculosis  and  should  an  actual  case 
be  found,  it  is  wise  to  kill  and  burn  the  victim.  Ship- 
ping of  eggs  or  stock  for  breeding  purposes  should  be 
stopped  at  once  when  it  is  found  there  is  any  tendency 
towards  tuberculosis.  It  is  claimed  that  one-fifth  of  th«_ 
loss  of  brooder  chicks  is  due  to  this  disease.  It  is  dif- 
ficult to  trace  the  origin  in  such  cases,  but  the  death  rate 
from  this  disease  gradually  increases  as  the  brooders  con- 
tinue to  be  used.  As  we  know,  the  disease  thrives  in 
dark  and  foul  quarters. 

The  average  brooder  is  built  on  the  wrong  principles. 
Healthy  stock  comes  from  the  incubators  to  the  brooders 
only  to  die  from  lack  of  sunlight  and  fresh  air,  the  de- 
stroyers of  germ  diseases.  Many  so-called  modern 
brooders  furnish  an  excellent  breeding  place  for  this 
dreaded  disease.  We  are  sadly  in  need  of  a  brooder 
that  supplies  a  large  quantity  of  fresh  air  and  affords 


Vices,  Enemies,  Parasites  and  Diseases      489 

a  well-lighted  warming  chamber.  With  the  present 
brooder  one  should  disinfect  frequently  and  thoroughly, 
avoiding,  if  possible,  diseases  having  a  tuberculosis 
tendency. 

Quoting  from  a  recent  report  from  the  Rock  Island 
Experiment  Station :  "  The  simple  expedient  of  remov- 
ing the  houses  and  setting  them  out  of  doors  in  the  full 
sunlight  reduced  the  evidences  of  tuberculosis  in  the 
post  mortem  examinations  from  nearly  fifty  per  cent 
to  only  three  per  cent." 

Vertigo — Vertigo  and  apoplexy  are  very  similar  in 
s}'mptoms  and  treatment.  Vertigo  is  seen  mostl\-  in  over- 
fat  fowls,  in  male  birds  during  the  breeding  season,  or 
in  chicks  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  Molent 
exercise  or  straining  in  laying  stock  may  cause  the  con- 
gestion of  the  brain.  The  blood  rushes  to  the  head, 
causing  the  fowl  to  stagger  from  dizziness,  running 
about  in  a  circle,  or  it  may  fall  prostrated  and  power- 
less to  move  for  a  time.  When  this  blood  pressure  is 
released,  the  fowl  will'  recover  unless  the  pressvire  has 
been  sufficient  to  rupture  a  blood  vessel,  in  which  case 
the  bird  dies  at  once. 

To  reduce  this  pressure,  apply  ice  or  cold  water  and 
confine  in  a  cool,  dark  place.  Give  Epsom  salts  or  cas- 
tor oil  at  once  and  follow  with  bromide  of  ])otassium, 
three  grains  three  times  a  day.  Reduce  the  fat-produc- 
ing elements  in  feeding. 

Wasting  of  the  Liver — The  liver  is  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  important  organs  of  the  fowl.  Atrophy,  or 
wasting  of  the  liver,  is  a  hardened  condition  due  to  com- 
pression caused  by  a  great  accumulation  of  fat  in  the  ab- 
dominal cavity.  There  are  not  many  definite  symptoms 
to  point  out  during  the  life  of  the  fowl. 
The  bird  grows  light  in  weight,  depressed  and  drowsy. 


490       Science  and  Art  of  Poultry  Culture 

The  excrements  are  of  a  bilious  order  ending  in  a  dark 
or  blood-stained  condition.  Convulsions  follow  in  some 
cases  and  the  bird  soon  dies.  Common  sense  in  the  use 
of  preventive  measures  is  the  surest  way  to  avoid  this 
as  well  as  other  diseases. 

Encourage  the  fowl  to  exercise  and  avoid  feeding  any 
musty  grain  or  any  decomposed  animal  or  vegetable 
matter.  Give  a  half  grain  of  calomel  followed  by  cas- 
tor oil  or  epsom  salts. 

Windpuff — This  condition  is  most  common  among 
young  stock.  The  chicken  inflates  with  air  and  dies  if 
not  relieved.  The  cause  is  not  known,  but  it  is  seldom 
found  in  flocks  that  are  kept  in  clean,  comfortable  quar- 
ters and  are  well  fed  and  cared  for.  Plenty  of  grit 
and  charcoal  should  be  fed  in  addition  to  green  food 
and  meat.  The  air  may  be  removed  by  cutting  a  small 
V-shaped  opening  in  the  skin  to  allow  the  air  to  es- 
cape. 


D.  H.  HILL  LIBRARY 
M«rth  Gw^olina  State  Coll*i» 


